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30 aquifers or waterways are utilised as the source of cold, then this could conceivably be classed as a form of renewable energy. For example in a US$ 58M scheme, Cornell University, USA, extracts water from the bottom of a nearby lake at around 4 – 5oC and passes it through a heat exchanger before storing it in a 20 000 m3 stratified thermal storage tank used to cool the incoming air from 75 campus buildings. Passive solar heating and cooling Passive solar technologies that focus on avoidance of heating and cooling loads are not discussed here in detail. However the IEA is very active in the field of energy efficient building designs (IEA, 2005) and passive solar heating and cooling as shown by the Energy Conservation in Building and Community Systems and Solar Heating and Cooling implementing agreements. Bioenergy technologies Biomass offers good future potential as an energy source since it is the only renewable energy carrier that can directly replace fossil fuels (Maniatis, 2006). The stored solar energy in biomass from bio- degradable matter can be converted into usable forms of bioenergy used for heating, and cooling, or into other energy carriers as well as for materials and chemicals. Biomass is very diverse and includes wood residues, organic wastes, crop residues, crops grown specifically for energy production, animal wastes, black liquor (the lignin-containing sulphite lyes in the alkaline-spent liquor from pulp and paper production) and municipal solid waste (MSW). Due to the limited availability of land biomass production for energy must be balanced against the need for food, fibre, animal feed, materials, biochemicals and soil carbon and forest sinks. Barriers to deployment of bioenergy projects include: increasing concerns that the source of biomass is sustainably produced; the logistics and costs of transport, storage and handling of bulky volumes; variable fuel quality in terms of moisture content and piece size, and thedifficultiesinnegotiatinglongtermfuelsupplycontractsandresourceandplanningconsentsfor plant construction (IEA, 2007b). Biomass conversion technologies, fuel types, prices and emissions are discussed below (IEA, 2006c). Conversion technologies Generating bioenergy heat can involve complex pre-treatment, upgrading and conversion processes that can follow many possible pathways from raw feedstock material through to energy carriers (Figure 8). Production of materials and chemicals from biomass feedstocks are competing pathways for the various limited sources of biomass that add to the complexity. Biomass combustion to produce heat is a mature technology and in many cases competitive, or nearly so, with fossil fuels. Examples include wood burning stoves, MSW incineration (the biogenic component being considered a renewable energy technology), pellet boilers and anaerobic digestion to produce biogas. In future, a bioenergy application could aim for tri-generation to produce electricity, heating and cooling simultaneously and hence maximize the overall conversion efficiency per unit of biomass. The additional costs involved are unclear, so in practice it is difficult to identify precise circumstances in which tri-generation can be applied under current economic conditions. Technological challenges of new materials, fuel handling and storage and the cost-gap for pellets, tri-generation etc. in relation to conventional processes using fossil fuels remain as barriers. An advantage of many forms of biomass in comparison to most other renewables is that they can be easily stored over long periods of time.PDF Image | RENEWABLES FOR HEATING AND COOLING
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