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32 Liquid biomass Biogas from wastes Industrial organic waste gas Source: Bosselaar, 2006. kg 39.4 71.2 Nm3 23.3 84.2 Nm3 23.3 84.2 (IEA, 2006f). An estimated 1.3 million die prematurely each year from resulting indoor air pollution from carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and particulate matter. These can be reduced by the use of well designed stoves that can better control the combustion process and filtering of exhaust gases. Emissions from modern designs of enclosed wood stoves as used for domestic heating in developed countries can also produce emissions which can cause local air pollution, especially when firewood with higher moisture contents is used. When well designed, enclosed, domestic stoves are operated correctly, then these emissions can be minimized, but due to the wide range of fuels used, and the varying ability and understanding of the operators, this is often not the case in practice. Commercial bioenergy heat production plants produce around 5 – 15 g/GJ of particulate matter whereas domestic wood stoves can emit up to 150 g/GJ (de Wilde, 2006). Although biomass is defined as a carbon-neutral energy carrier, due to the short-cycle carbon loop, atmospheric emissions should not be ignored (Table 3). They differ for each type of biomass. The related CO2 emissions however are not accounted for in national emissions registers and are not considered in the European CO2 Emissions Trading Scheme. When applying carbon dioxide capture and storage, bioenergy offers the only option to actually withdraw CO2 from the environment. In addition soil carbon levels can be increased or decreased by growing energy crops depending on the crop type and the cultivation and harvesting methods used. Table 3 Energy carriers and standard CO2 emissions factors as defined by the Netherlands in Autumn 2006 Unit Typical lower heat values (MJ/unit) CO2 emission factors (kg/GJ) Solid biomass kg 15.1 109.6 Gaseous biomass Nm3 21.8 90.8 Landfill gas Nm3 19.5 100.7 Geothermal technologies On a human timescale, geothermal heat is an inexhaustible source of energy. It has an extensive global distribution, and is independent of weather, season, or energy demand patterns. Market growth was highest in the late 1970s. From the early 1980s a decrease occurred leading to a more stable state until the technology received renewed interest from 1995 onwards. Efficiency and cost-effectiveness of geothermal systems are greatest when high temperature sources can be used for electricity generation and the lower grade residual heat can be used for other heating or cooling demands. Deep geothermal systems use heat from depths of 500 - 5000 m drilled at favourable geologic conditions. Shallow geothermal systems provide low grade heat from depths of less than 300m for use in association with heat pumps. These domestic scale systems currently remain capital intensive but can be installed virtually anywhere to provide heating and cooling for low on-going operational and maintenance costs (Rybach, 2006). Identifying a potential geothermal resource through mapping and 3D seismic exploration tools is advancing, but exploration risks remain that identified faults for example do not carry water and are therefore not usable for heat extraction.PDF Image | RENEWABLES FOR HEATING AND COOLING
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