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Deep geothermal The origin of deep geothermal heat can be found in the Earth’s interior (where central temperatures reach about 6 000°C) due to the gradual decay of long-lived radioactive isotopes (40K, 232Th, 235U and 238U). Heat energy continuously flows from the Earth’s interior to the surface. The resulting heat flux is not distributed uniformly over the Earth’s surface but is concentrated along active tectonic plate boundaries where volcanic activity has transported high temperature molten material nearer to the surface. Under the right conditions, water penetrates deeply into the surrounding hot rock zones resulting in the formation of high temperature geothermal systems containing hot water and/or pressurised steam. In addition groundwater naturally circulating through deep fracture zones can collect heat from large volumes of rock and concentrate it in shallow reservoirs, even if far away from plate boundaries. In some cases, the water is discharged as hot springs. The heated water is typically at a lower temperature than when produced in deeper volcanic-based systems (IEA, 2006c; IEA, 2006d). Where high temperatures exist, the heat can be used in conventional geothermal developments for electricity generation or for direct heat use applications. Cascade methods can be incorporated to utilise the hot water remaining from electricity generation in successively lower temperature processes, which may include binary systems to generate further power as well as a range of direct heat uses including for providing industrial process heat, district heating, greenhouse heating, open ground heating, swimming pools, and space heating (IEA, 2006c; IEA, 2006d). In Iceland, 88% of all households use geothermal energy directly due to the favourable geologic conditions and efficient hot water distribution networks (Rybach, 2006). Enhanced geothermal systems Vast amounts of heat present in rock at accessible depths up to around 5000 m constitutes a potentially significant worldwide resource. Investigation into its development and utilisation using enhanced geothermal system techniques (EGS, formerly known as “hot-dry rock”) is currently at the cutting edge of geothermal research (IEA, 2006c; IEA, 2006d). However challenges still prevail, as for example with the €50 million project in Basel, Switzerland designed to extract enough super-heated water to drive a power plant providing electricity for 10 000 homes and heat for 2 700 others. Injecting water at high pressure into the 5 000m deep borehole in December 2006 caused an earthquake of 3.4 magnitude on the Richter scale. In addition suitable permeability of the bedrock is also necessary. Shallow geothermal Ambient heat stored at shallow depths (~300 m) can be an essential component of energy-efficient heating and cooling systems in buildings. Aquifer thermal energy stores (ATES) occur when heat is stored naturally in ground water layers. Both heat sources can be extracted with heat pumps and then usefully applied for space or water heating (IEA, 2006c; IEA, 2006d; Bosselaar, 2006). The past decade has seen increased deployment of geothermal heat pumps (GHP). These are a fully developed technology with a relatively low cost-gap, but this depends on the price of the conventional fuels to be substituted. In most cases the stored heat can be collected or replenished to provide a seasonal source for both heating and cooling. Heat pumps can transform low temperature heat from the subsoil, underground water or rock source to a higher level that can be useful for low-temperature heating (Figure 9). In summer, when the ground is cooler than ambient air, shallow geothermal systems circulate the heat carrier fluid between building and ground, hence by-passing the heat pump. In effect the heat of the building is transported to the ground to be stored for extraction in winter (“free cooling”). Thus the same shallow geothermal system 33PDF Image | RENEWABLES FOR HEATING AND COOLING
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