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38 due to different mechanisms that contribute to cost reductions over time (technology learning). Solar active heating, biogas digestion, pellet combustion, and shallow geothermal heat using heat pumps are now entering markets as a result of worldwide RD&D investments together with increased prices for conventional energy sources. SolarthermalsystemsarealreadywidelyusedincountriessuchasCyprus,China,Germany,Austria, Turkey and Israel, primarily for hot water supply, but also for heating swimming pools and residential space heating. Elsewhere, without government incentives, they remain at the early market stage. Unglazed, glazed and evacuated tube water collectors have market shares of 15%, 40% and 45% respectively following recent growth in the latter (SHC, 2007). Anaerobic digestion to produce biogas relies on a well-known technology, but due to technical and market barriers, in many countries it still needs some policy support to reach competitiveness (with the exception of sewage treatment plants perhaps). Biomass-fired heat production at the small to medium scale is growing with the advent of convenient pellet stoves. By contrast the long established biomass gasification process (that is more efficient than combustion) is reasonably well understood but few plant manufacturers exist and design improvements continue, especially to reduce tar formation. Improved technologies may still require support to overcome public acceptance and small-scale issues. Shallow geothermal (< 300m depths) exploits near-surface heat using heat pumps. These transform low temperature heat from the ground source to a level that can be used for low grade space or water heating. Geothermal heat pumps can also use the ground as a low-temperature heat sink in summer when they are applied for cooling rather than heating. In a few countries with strong government support, they have already reached the mass market. Under development Technologies in the R&D and demonstration phase (third generation) have a far larger cost-gap relative to conventional technologies, and therefore need stronger support measures mainly in the form of R D & D investment. Examples include solar active cooling, integrated bioenergy systems, and enhanced geothermal systems (EGS). Thermal energy storage options to allow higher shares of renewable contributions in situations of a de-phased demand and supply that do not closely match over time are also mainly at the development stage. Solar systems are an example for which storage could improve performance where for example the heat is required after sunset or during cloudy periods. Concentrating solar power (CSP) is a rapidly developing technology for electricity production, but there are also promising developments for concentrating solar heat (CSH) to supply water at high to medium temperatures for industrial process heat purposes (SolarPaces, 2007). This solar thermal energy can also be used to provide cooling and dehumidification. Cooling technologies include single- and double-effect absorption chillers, adsorption chillers, and solid or liquid desiccant systems. Use of an evaporative cooler has resulted in energy savings in California. In more humid climates the energy savings would be less, although these savings could be enhanced using liquid desiccants that can be regenerated with solar thermal energy. Capital costs, however, are a significant impediment to solar air conditioning being several times higher than conventional electric vapour-compression systems as used in most conventional air conditioners. Capital costs per unit could be reduced where a solar thermal collector can be used for both summer cooling and winter heating. Overall solar cooling will require a substantial RD&D effort before it reaches the early market stage. The biorefinery concept for biomass feedstocks has potential to meet a large proportion of future energy demand, particularly once dedicated crops can be tailored to meet biorefinery requirements. Current RD&D efforts focus on reducing the costs of producing consistent biomass from dedicatedPDF Image | RENEWABLES FOR HEATING AND COOLING
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