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70 scheme has been employed with the support of guidance policies. In Germany for example (Annex B4), the Market Incentive Program (MAP) subsidy scheme allocated €588 million between 1999 and 2005 in support of solar thermal development, also supported by awareness raising campaigns at federal and local levels. As a result, the solar thermal market has shown substantial growth. The contribution in political support from regional governments has been especially important for the growth of the solar thermal heating market. In addition to subsidies offered at a regional level, stick-based incentives for solar thermal have been initiated in Spain (Annex B10) and Italy (Annex B6) and discussed at the regional level in Germany (Annex B4). Often in the form of building codes, these regulations require the installation of solar thermal heating technologies on all new or renovated buildings. A regulation can specify for enough solar thermal capacity to supply a certain percentage of heat (most often as a percentage of domestic water heating). These incentives symbolize an important shift in the focus of political instruments from carrot-based incentives to stick-based regulations which are especially well suited to areas of strong solar resource. The recent adaptation of the Barcelona model solar thermal ordinance9 by the federal government in Spain has shifted much of the financial burden of support for this renewable heat technology away from the public purse. When defining policy mechanisms for solar thermal, ideally they should be based on energy yield (GJ or kWh) rather than on collector surface area installed (m2) even though this is easier to measure. Various designs of solar thermal collector technologies exist (Section 2) each providing a different energy yield (GJ/m2) for the same level of solar irradiation. Policy support based on surface area rather than yield disadvantages collectors with a higher performance such as vacuum collectors since these generate more heat/m2 than an equivalent surface area of an alternative design. The more efficient technology would not be compensated for the additional heat produced. Moreover, since the roof surface area available for solar thermal installations is not usually limiting, the area of solar thermal panels installed is less relevant than the production of heat. Due to the intermittent nature of the solar resource, with an abundant supply in summer when heating needs are generally low and a reduced supply in winter when heating needs are high, solar storage is an important consideration not yet addressed in policy making. In some regions, future policies designed to support solar thermal heat could therefore include a component for seasonal heat storage. Biomass On average, biomass accounts for around 95% of the renewable heat produced today (Section 3). The contribution of traditional biomass for household heating and cooking plays a large role but is excluded from this discussion (Section 2). Modern biomass combustion is one of the more mature and cost- competitive renewable heating technologies so may require less political support than for others. The reliability of biomass resource supply is an important consideration for potential investors in biomass heat (IEA, 2007b). The supply of consistent quality biomass fuel must be secured for an investor to finance a biomass fuelled heating project. If the supply chain for biomass-based heat cannot be guaranteed, or the biomass not guaranteed to a specific quality, a barrier to project deployment exists. Support mechanisms for the development of biomass supply chains including fuel supply and transport need to be considered by policy-makers targeting biomass-based heating. For example, the UK allocated €5.25 million between 2005 and 2008 to develop the supply chain and market infrastructure for wood and straw fuels under its Bioenergy Infrastructure Scheme (Annex B12). This policy aims specifically to develop the supply chain required to harvest, store, process, and supply the biomass for CHP plants. 9. The installed surface area increased from 1.1 m2/1 000 inhabitants to 16.5 m2/1 000 inhabitants in Barcelona between 2000 and 2005.PDF Image | RENEWABLES FOR HEATING AND COOLING
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