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much lower boiling point—a working fluid—in an adjacent pipe. The working fluid becomes steam, powers a turbine, and is recycled back. This method is more expensive than others but works with lower temperatures. The three basic types of geothermal plants http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/powerplants.html Chena Hot Springs in Alaska is a unique example of a Binary plant. It employs water at 109°F (43°C) up to 165°F (74°C), the coldest ever for geothermal electricity. It does so by using “spring water to heat up R134a, a fluid hitherto employed mainly as a refrigerant. Since R134a has a relatively low boiling point, the water is hot enough to convert it into a gas” (Economist). Icy water then cools the fluid to be reused. The Chena Hot Springs plant is relatively low yield, but was estimated to save some 150,000 gallons of diesel fuel, or $540 million, in 2008 (Bryson). The plant was built for only $4 million using air-conditioner parts (Bryson),an innovative recon- figuring of existing technology, rather than building whole systems from scratch. Like other renewable energy geothermal is clean, with emissions consisting largely of steam. Compared to fossil fuel, both in extraction and emission, impacts are tiny; “Unlike coal and natu- ral gas, geothermal incurs no „hidden costs‟ such as land degradation, high air emissions, forced extinction and destruction of animals and plants, and health impacts to humans” (Geothermal 101). Air pollution is virtually nonexistent: “Emissions of nitrous oxide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and carbon dioxide are extremely low, especially when compared to fossil fuel emissions” (Geothermal 101). One recent anomaly was reported in Reykjavik, Ice- land, where a geothermal plant was accused of releasing soot composed of hydrogen sulphide, darkening silverware and possibly harming local moss.(Veal). However, officials at the geother- mal plant, along with visiting geothermal experts, dispute this (Blodgett). One other side-effect of geothermal energy is the possibility of triggering seismic activity. Some geothermal fields have triggered microearthquakes, too small to be felt by humans (Jennejohn, Blodgett & Gawell). Residents near The Geysers geothermal field have reported increased trem- ors, although distinguishing these from already-occurring natural activity is difficult (Ibid). ProQuest Discovery Guides http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/discoveryguides-main.php Goffman: Geothermal Energy 5 Released September 2009PDF Image | The k p method and its application to graphene, carbon nanotubes and graphene nanoribbons: the Dirac equation
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