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Fig. 17.2. Sketch and nomenclature for reciprocating engines: a) 4-stroke, b) 2-stroke (uni-flow). In the ideal air-standard Otto cycle, the working fluid is just air, which is assumed to follow four processes (Fig. 17.3): isentropic compression, constant-volume heat input from the hot source, isentropic expansion, and constant-volume heat rejection to the environment. Fig. 17.3. The ideal Otto cycle in the T-s and p-V diagram, and a practical p-V trace of four-stroke and two-stroke engines. The main parameters of both ideal and real Otto cycles are: Size, measured by the displacement volume (the volume swept by the piston, V1−V2), usually less than 0.5 litres per cylinder, to avoid self-ignition. Speed, more precisely crankshaft speed, n, with a typical operation range n=1000..7000 rpm (n=20..120 Hz). The maximum value may be in the range nmax=6000..8000 rpm for four- stroke engines. Two-stroke motorcycle engines run quicker (nmax=13 000 rpm), the quickest (nmax=20 000 rpm) being the smallest engines used in aircraft modelling (two stroke, 1 cm3, 200 W, using methanol or ether fuel with some 5..15% oil for lubrication and anticorrosion). Compression ratio, r=V1/V2, with a typical range of r=8..11 (up to 14 in direct-injection spark-ignition engines), limited by the 'knock' or self-ignition problem. Mean effective pressure, pme, defined as the unit work divided by the displacement, with a typical range of 0.2..1.5 MPa (the full-load value may range from pme=1.2 MPa in two-stroke motorcycle engines, to pme=1.7 MPa in the largest turbocharged engines). Maximum pressure may have a typical range of 4..10 MPa. Performance maps of reciprocating engines are usually presented on a pmen diagram, i.e. mean effective pressure versus engine speed. The cold-air-standard model takes as working fluid air with constant properties (those at the inlet, i.e. cold), what renders the analysis simple. The energy exchanges for the trapped control mass, m, are W12/m=cv(T2-T1), Q12=0, W23=0, Q23/m=cv(T3-T2), W34/m=cv(T4-T3), Q34=0, W41=0, Q41/m=cv(T1-T4), and the energy and exergy efficiencies are:PDF Image | THERMAL MACHINES AND HEAT ENGINES
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