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34 12 3 4 2 1 1 2 W W TTTT1T1 1 and W 1 T (17.2) e,Otto Q TT T r1 x W 1T 23322 max1 1 1T Real spark-ignition engines do not recycle the working fluid; they are all internal combustion engines where ambient air is pumped in, and fuel (a volatile liquid like gasoline, or a gas) is added to prepare a homogeneous reactive mixture that at a certain point (cinematically or electronically controlled) is ignited by an electrical spark (a minute spark is enough to ignite the easily flammable fuel/air mixture). Fuel addition is nowadays electronically controlled by injection, either at the inlet-duct of each cylinder, or directly inside the cylinder, as in a typical diesel engine (but with a much lower injection pressure, less than 10 MPa); at first, say from 1900 to 1980, the common fuel-addition system was the carburettor, based on venturi suction from a small float-regulated fuel chamber. Gaseous fuels, like coal-gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and natural gas, are also used instead of gasoline, as well as other liquid fuels like methanol, ethanol and ethers, usually added to gasoline up to a 20%. With the advent of direct injection in the cylinder with electronic control, mixture stratification has become possible, highly decreasing emissions and detonation risk at part loads (it was already suggested by Otto itself, but unfeasible at the time); the idea is to start with a lean dosage and end with a stoichiometric mixing close to the spark plug at ignition time, controlling engine power via fuel injection like in diesels, instead of by choking the main air flow as in homogeneous-mixture traditional Otto engines.. One of the key advantages of reciprocating internal combustion engines, both Otto and Diesel type, is that cheap materials can be used in their construction (e.g. cast iron, against very expensive nickel alloys in gas turbines), because peak temperatures (up to 3000 K) are only realised within the burning gases and for short times, with an average temperature during the whole cycle of some 700 K, which would be the quasi-steady temperature level at the wall (because of its much larger thermal inertia), even without cooling; engine-wall cooling is applied to lower this ‘adiabatic’ temperature down to 600 K to prevent thermal decomposition of lubricating oil. Reciprocating engines may be two-strokes or four-strokes in a cycle; the simple to model is the four- strokes engine: one stroke is used to fill the cylinder with the air-fuel mixture through the inlet valve (the inside pressure is a little below atmospheric); a second stroke is used to compress the mixture with valves closed and, at a precise point close to maximum compression, burn it with a spark; a third stroke is used to let the product gasses to expand and do work on the crank-shaft; and a fourth stroke is used to force the burnt gasses out through the exhaust valve, and start a new cycle (two crank-shaft turns have elapsed). In two-stroke engines there is an overlap between intake and exhaust, with the inlet stream used to sweep the burnt gasses (throwing unburnt gases to the tailpipe!), and the whole cycle is performed in one turn of the crankshaft. In spite of the higher fuel consumption and pollutant emissions, and the difficulties for their lubrication (oil is added to the fuel), two-stroke engines have very high specific power, and thus they are used for small engines (in model vehicles, garden engines, motorcycles, and outboard boats). Valve design and operation is crucial in all reciprocating engines, but particularly so in two-stroke types. Spark are generated by high-voltage dielectric breakdown in the spark-plug gap, nowadays with local coils excited by solid-state electronics (e.g. thyristor trigger and Hall-effect distributor), and before (say from 1910 to 1980) with a central induction-coil, a mechanical contact breaker, and a mechanical distributor. The upper limit in power and engine size, for homogeneous mixture engines, is dictated by the burning time, i.e. the time for propagation of the initial flame ball created around the spark, to the chamber T3PDF Image | THERMAL MACHINES AND HEAT ENGINES
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