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Steam turbines (notice that the term is used indistinguishable for the roto-dynamic device and for the whole power plant) are the largest thermal power plants, typically limited to 1000 MW per unit in nuclear power stations, with typical efficiencies from 30% to 40%, although supercritical power plants reach 45% (based on LHV). An advantage of steam turbines, extensive to all external combustion engines, is that any kind of fuel or other heat source may be used, contrary to internal combustion engines, where only fluid fuels, either residual to petroleum distillation but most of the times distillate fluids, can be used. The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is typically 85%, and the electromechanical efficiency of the alternator 98%. The energy and exergy balances in a typical steam power plant are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Energy and exergy balances in a typical steam power plant Component Combustion chamber Boiler tubes heat transfer Exhaust gasses (chimney) Turbine Condenser Water cooling (condenser) Shaft Example 4. Rankine cycle. Steam engine Organic Rankine Cycles (ORC) Energy output 0 0 0.15 0 0 0.55 0.30 11 Exergy use 0.30 0.30 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.30 All large vapour power plants use water as working fluid, but water is not suitable for small steam engines with a low-temperature heat source (say Thigh<450 K), because of its low vapour pressure at those temperatures. The only practical heat engines in this range make use of more volatile organic substances, what is known as organic Rankine cycle (ORC). Typical working substances are hydrocarbons, or halocarbons. There are commercial ORC engines powered by waste heat or solar heat (usually hot water at >85 oC) generating some 50 kW in a 20 oC environment, with an energy efficiency about =10%. The key problem in ORC design is the expander efficiency (friction loses on small piston or turbine devices). As for the steam Rankine cycle, liquid vaporisation (the upper part in the cycle diagram) may go over the critical point of the working fluid, i.e. it can be transcritical (sometimes said supercritical). Portable ORC engines driven by solar energy are competing with photovoltaic electric generators (much more expensive but simpler), and with internal combustion engines (much more polluting and noisy), in distributed and remote electricity generation. Lorenz cycle and Kalina cycle Most heat input/output to/from a plant's working fluid is from variable temperature heat sources/sinks, as the hot combustion gasses and the cold cooling water streams in the normal Rankine cycle. If, instead of using a pure fluid, a mixture were used in a Rankine cycle, due to its variable boiling/condensing temperature, the phase-change heating/cooling could better match the temperature rise/fall in the heating/cooling streams.PDF Image | THERMAL MACHINES AND HEAT ENGINES
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