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Generation Characteristics • Intermittent, however generation typically coincides with peak demand (storage or backup power required for off-grid applications) • No generation at night • Capacity factor varies with solar resource, approximate range of 9-16% in BC, as high as 28% in south western USA (U.S. DOE 2011) (NREL 2012) • Emissions: zero during operation • Sizing: modularity allows for almost any size; residential units vary from 2 kW – 10 kW; utility-scale is typically > 10 MW Present and Future Costs The cost of a PV system consists of the module itself, as well as the balance of system (BOS), installation, and design costs. BOS components typically include electrical equipment (inverters, transformers, wiring, grid-connection), and mounting racks. Installation and design costs include site preparation, labour costs, applicable permits, transportation etc. For an off-grid system, the BOS and installation costs can account for as much as 70% of the capital costs (IRENAc 2012). The cost of PV systems has been declining for years, and further cost reductions are expected (IRENAc 2012). The tables below outline the characteristics, performance, and costs of 1st and 2nd generation solar cells, for both residential and utility-scale systems. Feasibility Requirements The first step in determining feasibility is identifying the solar resource in your location. Publically available databases with this information exist for many countries (e.g. NRCan Cartes PV Maps, NREL Solar Maps). The amount of solar radiation reaching a location in a typical day is called its insolation, measured in kwh/m2/day. In BC for example, the photovoltaic potential is highest in the southern interior, and ranges from 800-1300 kWh/kW throughout the province. This means each 1 kW solar panel can be expected to output approximately 800-1300 kWh/year, representing a capacity factor of 9-15% (NREL 2012). Other siting considerations include identifying obstructions that may cause shading of the panels, and determining if a tracking system would be cost- effective. Detailed modeling of the available solar resources can be done with available software such as HOMER Energy, allowing customers to identify the expected daily, monthly, and yearly outputs from solar power systems. Integrating storage or backup power may be another important aspect of feasibility, particularly for off-grid projects. Intermittent Resource Similar to wind energy, the electricity generation from solar cells is also intermittent, and varies with the solar resource. One advantage of solar energy is that it typically follows the electrical demand, with high generation during the day, though the generation drops to nothing overnight. Because of this variation, solar power is typically combined with storage technologies or backup power in off-grid applications. Technology Single crystalline silicon and Polycrystalline silicon Amorphous silicon, Copper-indium- gallium-diselenide, and cadmium-telluride Source: (IRENAc 2012) Application Residential system Utility-scale system *Includes total system cost (module, BOS, installation, design etc.) Current Efficiency (%) [2015 projection] 13-19 [17-20+] 5-11 [14+] Area required per kW (m2) 7-8 10-15 Commercial Status Mature, commercially available Less mature than 1st generation, early deployment with small to large scale production Size 2-10 kW >10 MW Notes High cost of materials may limit further cost reductions Less material used (up to 99% less) so material costs are lower, however lower efficiencies; can be integrated into flexible materials O&M Cost ($/kW) 6-27 (<1 MW) 47-60 (Utility-scale, 10 MW) 1st Generation 2nd Generation (thin-film) *System Cost (2010 USD $/kW) [2020 projection] 4200-6000 [1800-2700] 3600-4000 [1800] Source: (EPRI 2010) (IRENAc 2012)PDF Image | Biomass Conversion Technologies
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