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Feasibility Requirements There is currently significant interest in storage technologies for remote microgrids due to their potential to increase stability and efficiency, and assist in the adoption of renewable generation technologies. Many storage technologies are still in the development stages, and their integration in remote microgrids is limited to date. As such, the following considerations are important when designing and implementing future storage projects (IRENA 2012c): • Detailed design for accurate system sizing • Control system to manage and smoothly integrate multiple generators and storage technologies • System monitoring and maintenance • Financial modeling to ensure a financially sustainable project It is suggested that testing and debugging is an important step before transporting and installing new systems in remote locations. Introducing new technologies one at a time is also considered an effective strategy to minimize integration challenges (IRENA 2012c). Fuel Cells Fuel cells are another electrochemical device that can be used for storage purposes. Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells are the most widely used and will be considered in this section, however several other types exist. In a PEM fuel cell storage system, hydrogen fuel is the storage medium. The fuel inputs for a PEM fuel cell are hydrogen and oxygen/air, and the output is water vapour. There are three main components of a fuel cell storage system: an electrolyzer that splits water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity (reverse operation of a fuel cell), a hydrogen storage tank, and a fuel cell that uses hydrogen and oxygen to create electricity (and water). A limited number of fuel cell storage systems are in operation, however the efficiencies of such systems are relatively low. This is because the round-trip efficiency of fuel cells can be as low as 20% (IRENA 2012c). Fuel cell systems can also be expensive due to the number of components needed and the low level of commercialization. System Characteristics and Costs for Fuel Cells and Batteries Fuel Cell Equipment Fuel Cell stack Electrolyzer Hydrogen tank Capital $4,000/kW $2,000/kW $623/kg H2 O&M $184/kW-yr $4/kW-yr $16/kg-yr Efficiency (%) Round-trip (all components) 20%-40% Lifetime (years) 20 Capacity Highly customizable Sources: (Electric Power Research Institute 2010) (IRENA 2012c) (Ballard 2010) (Hydrogenics 2009) (Steward, et al. 2009) (Augustine, et al. 2012) Battery Type Maturity Advanced Demo/Comm Capacity (MWh) 0.1-10 7.2 0.625-2.5 0.6-4 Maximum Power (MW) <10 1 0.125-0.5 0.2-1.2 % Round- Storage trip Duration Efficiency Capital Cost by power output ($/kW) 300-800 1000-2000 1200-2000 3020-4380 Capital Cost by storage capacity ($/kWh) 150-500 125-250 350-800 215 (additional electrolyte cost on top of capital) O&M Cost ($/yr) 2% of Capital Cost Lifetime (years) 3-10 15 Cell stack: 5– 15; Electro- lyte: 20+ Lead-Acid NaS Zn/Br Flow VRB Flow ercial Commercial – Significant commercial experience Demonstration – Small systems verified in demonstration Demonstration – Verified in limited field demonstration (hrs) 4-10 7.2 5 3.3-3.5 (total cycles) 70-90 (4500) 80-90 (4500) 70-85 (>10000) 65-70 (>10000) Sources: (IRENA 2012c) (Electric Power Research Institute 2010) (Augustine, et al. 2012) (Electricity Storage Association 2011)PDF Image | Biomass Conversion Technologies
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