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First Order Draft Contribution to Special Report Renewable Energy Sources (SRREN) 1 drilling exploration wells. Thermograms recorded in available shallow water-wells (50-200 m) 2 could be also useful to reveal geothermal anomalies and constructing terrestrial temperature maps 3 (Zui, 2004, 2010). 4 Today, geothermal wells are drilled over a range of depths to about 5 km using conventional rotary 5 drilling methods similar to those used for oil and gas. Advances in drilling technology enable high 6 temperature operation and provide directional capability. Typically, wells are deviated from vertical 7 to about 30-50° inclination from a “kick off point” at depths between 200 m and 2000 m. Many 8 wells can be drilled from the same drilling-pad, heading in different directions to access large 9 resource volumes, and target permeable structures. Current geothermal drilling methods are 10 presented in more detail in the chapter 6 of Tester et al. (2006). 11 4.3.3 Reservoir engineering 12 The most sophisticated method of estimating reserves and sizing power plants is to apply reservoir 13 simulation technology. Since it is not possible to gather all the data required to construct a 14 comprehensive deterministic model, a conceptual model is built, using available data, then 15 translated into a numerical representation, and calibrated to the unexploited, initial thermodynamic 16 state of the reservoir. Future behaviour is forecast under selected load conditions using a heat and 17 mass transfer algorithm (Pruess, 2009), and optimum plant size selected. 18 Injection management is an important aspect of geothermal development. Because most geothermal 19 reservoirs are fracture-dominated, the system “plumbing” is poorly known at early times, and the 20 placement of injection wells cannot be optimized until the field has been stressed by production, 21 and flow paths and thermal responses identified. Cooling of production zones by injected water that 22 has had insufficient contact with hot reservoir rock can result in severe production declines. 23 Placement of wells should also aim to enhance deep hot recharge through production pressure 24 drawdown, but suppress shallow inflows of peripheral cool water through injection pressure 25 increase. 26 Given sufficient, accurate calibration with field measurements, geothermal reservoir evolution can 27 be modelled and pro-actively managed. Hence, it is prudent to monitor and analyse the chemistry 28 and thermodynamics of geothermal fluids, along with mapping their flow and movement. This 29 information combined with other geophysical data are fed back to re-calibrate models for better 30 predictions. 31 4.3.4 Surface equipment and power plants 32 Surface equipment generally has to handle steam, water and/or both (two) phases. Systems with 33 direct use of steam consist of pipelines, water-steam separators, vaporisers, de-misters, and different 34 types of turbines. Binary cycles require heat exchangers. Steam turbines are driven by convective 35 flow to a low pressure exhaust or a vacuum. In a condensing turbine (Figure 4.2), vacuum 36 conditions are usually maintained by direct condenser. Depending on humidity and temperature, a 37 significant proportion of the steam condensate is thereby lost to the atmosphere as vapour. The unit 38 sizes are commonly 20-110 MWe (DiPippo, 2009). Design optimisation requires knowledge of 39 reservoir behaviour. Double or triple flash cycles make use of excess brine separated at high 40 pressure. A “triple flash” steam turbine can have three different inlets, operating at pressures and 41 temperatures as low as 1.4 bara and 110°C. Back-pressure turbines are also steam turbines that 42 exhaust to the atmosphere, omitting the condenser and the cooling tower, and are frequently used as 43 small plants supplied by isolated wells for distributed local (rural) power supplies. The efficiency is 44 only about 50-60% of condensing turbines, but the cost is less. About 15 back-pressure units of 5 45 MWe have been successfully operating in Mexico since the 1980s. Do Not Cite or Quote 11 of 47 Chapter 4 SRREN_Draft1_Ch04_Version03 22-Dec-09PDF Image | Chapter 4 Geothermal Energy
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