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Figure 8. Flash steam plant using a water-dominated geothermal resource with a separator to produce steam. Figure 9. Binary power or organic Rankine cycle plant using a low temperature geothermal resource and a secondary fluid of a low boiling-point hydrocarbon. MWe plant on Kamchatka. More recently, a 200 kWe binary plant using 74 ̊C geothermal water and 4 ̊C cooling water was installed at Chena Hot Springs Resort in Alaska (Lund, 2006). The operating capacity in the United States has in- creased since 1995 due to completion of the two effluent pipelines injecting treated sewage water at The Geysers. In an attempt to bring production back, the Southeast Geysers Effluent Recycling Project is now injecting 340 L/s of treated wastewater through a 48-km long pipeline from Clear Lake, adding 77 MWe. A second, 66-km long pipeline from Santa Rosa was placed on-line in 2004, injecting 480 L/s that are projected to add another 100 MWe to The Geyser’s capacity. Table 4 lists the leading countries producing electric power. A recent report (Bertani, 2007) indicates that geothermal installed capacity per power generation has increased to 9,732 MWe. One of the more significant aspects of geothermal power development is the size of its contribution to national and regional capacity and production of countries. Table 5 shows the countries or regions that lead in this contribution with more than 5% of the electrical energy supplied by geother- mal power based on data from WGC2005 (Bertani, 2005). DIRECT UTILIZATION Direct-use of geothermal resources is primarily for direct heating and cooling. The main utilization categories are: (1) swimming, bathing and balneology; (2) space heating and cooling including district energy systems; (3) agricultural applications such as greenhouse and soil heating; (4) aquaculture application such as pond and raceway water heating; (5) industrial applications such as mineral extraction, food and grain drying; and, (6) geothermal (ground-source) heat pumps (GHP), used for both heating and cooling.Direct- use of geothermal resources normally uses temperatures below 150 ̊C as illustrated in Figure 10. The main advantage of using geothermal energy for direct use projects in this low- to intermediate-temperature range is that these resources are more widespread and exists in at least 80 countries at economic drilling depths. In addition, there are no conversion Table 4. Leading Countries in Electric Power Generation (>100 MWe) (Bertani, 2005) Installed Capacity, MWe 2534 1930 953 797 791 535 435 202 163 151 Kenya *USA figures revised based on (Lund, et al. 2005b) GHC BULLETIN, JUNE 2007 Country United States* Philippines Mexico Indonesia Italy Japan New Zealand Iceland Costa Rica El Salvador Running Capacity, MWe 2133 1838 953 838 699 530 403 202 163 119 Annual Energy Produced, GWh/yr 17,840 9,253 6,282 6,085 5,340 3,467 2,774 1,483 1,145 967 1,088 Running Capacity Number of Units Factor Operating 0.95 209 0.57 57 0.75 36 0.83 15 0.87 32 0.75 19 0.79 33 0.84 19 0.80 5 0.93 5 0.96 9 129 129 5PDF Image | CHARACTERISTICS, DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION GEOTHERMAL
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