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Table 5. National and Regional Geothermal Power Contributions The world direct utilization of geothermal energy is difficult to determine; as, there are many diverse uses of the energy and these are sometimes small and located in remote areas. Finding someone, or even a group of people in a country who are knowledgeable on all the direct uses is difficult. In addition, even if the use can be determined, the flow rates and temperatures are usually not known or reported; thus, the capacity and energy use can only be estimated. This is especially true of geothermal waters used for swimming pools, bathing and balneology. Thus, it is difficult to compare changes from one report to the next. This was especially true of Japan and Hungary in the WGC 2000 country updates, as a significant portion of this use was not reported, and was obtained from other sources. For this reason, the values reported in Lund and Freeston (2001), Figure 10. Geothermal energy uses. (Geothermal Education Office) Figure 11. Typical direct use geothermal heating system configuration. Country or Region Tibet San Miguel Island, Azores Tuscany, Italy El Salvador Iceland Philippines Nicaragua Kenya Lihir Island, Papua New Guinea Guadeloupe (Caribbean) Costa Rica New Zealand % of National or Regional Capacity (MWe) 30.0 25.0 25.0 14.0 13.7 12.7 11.2 11.2 10.9 9.0 8.4 5.5 % of National or Regional Energy (GWh/yr) 30.0 n/a 25.0 24.0 16.6 19.1 9.8 19.2 n/a 9.0 15.0 7.1 efficiency losses and projects commonly use conventional water-well drilling and off-the-shelf heating and cooling equipment (allowing for the temperature and chemistry of the fluid). Most projects can be on line in less than a year. Projects can be on a small scale (“mom and pop operations”) such as for an individual home, single greenhouse or aquaculture pond, but can also be a large scale operation such as for district heating/cooling and for food and lumber drying, and mineral ore extraction. It is often necessary to isolate the geothermal fluid from the user side to prevent corrosion and scaling. Care must be taken to prevent oxygen from entering the system (geothermal water normally is oxygen free), and dissolved gases and minerals such a boron, arsenic, and hydrogen sulfide must be removed or isolated as they are harmful to plants and animals. On the other hand, carbon dioxide, which often occurs in geothermal water, can be extracted and used for carbonated beverages or to enhance growth in greenhouses. The typical equipment for a direct- use system is illustrated in Figure 11, and includes, downhole and circulation pumps, heat exchangers (normally the plate type), transmission and distribution lines (normally insulated pipes), heat extraction equipment, peaking or back-up plants (usually fossil fuel fired) to reduce the use of geothermal fluids and reduce the number of wells required, and fluid disposal system (injection wells). Geothermal energy can usually meet 95% of the annual heating or cooling demand, yet only be sized for 50% of the peak load. Geothermal heat pumps include both open (using ground-water or lake water) and closed loop (either in horizontal or vertical configuration) systems as illustrated in Figure 12. 6 GHC BULLETIN, JUNE 2007PDF Image | CHARACTERISTICS, DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION GEOTHERMAL
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