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Emissions: These are usually associated with steam pow- er plant cooling towers that produce water vapor emission (steam), not smoke. The potential gases that can be released, depending upon the reservoir type are carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxides, hydrogen sulfide along with particu- late matter. A coal- fired power plant produces the following kilograms of emissions per MWh as compared to a geother- mal power plant: 994 vs. up to 40 for carbon dioxide, 4.71 vs. up to 0.16 for sulfur dioxide, 1.95 vs. 0 for nitrogen oxides, 0 vs. 0.08 for hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and 1.01 vs. 0 for par- ticulate matter. Hydrogen sulfide is routinely treated at geo- thermal power plants, and converted to elemental sulfur. In comparison, oil-fired power plants produce 814 kg and natu- ral gas fired plants 550 kg of H2S per MWh. Binary power plants and direct-use projects normally do not produce any pollutants, as the water is injected back into the ground after use without exposing it to the atmosphere. Noise: The majority of the noise produced at a power plant or direct-use site is during the well drilling operation, which normally shuts down at night. The noise from a power plant is not considered an issue of concern, as it is extremely low, unless you are next to or inside the plant. Most of the noise comes from cooling fans and the rotating turbines. Water use: Geothermal plants use about 20 liters of fresh- water per MWh, while binary air-cooled plants use no fresh water, as compared to a coal plant that uses 1,370 liters per MWh. An oil plant uses about 15% less and nuclear about 25% more than the coal plant (www.cleanenergy.org). The only change in the fluid during use is to cool it, and usually the fluid is returned to the same aquifer so it does not mix with the shallow groundwater. At The Geysers facility in northern California, 42 million liters of treated wastewater from Santa Rosa are pumped daily for injection into the geo- thermal reservoir, reducing surface water pollution in the community and increasing the production of the geothermal field. A similar project supplies waste water from the Clear Lake area on the northeast side of the The Geysers. These projects have increased the capacity of the field by over 100 MWe. Land use: Geothermal power plants are designed to “blend-in” with the surrounding landscape, and can be lo- cated near recreational areas with minimum land and visual impacts. They generally consist of small modular plants un- der 100 MWe as compared to coal or nuclear plants of around 1,000 MWe. Typically, a geothermal facility uses 404 square meters of land per GWh compared to a coal facility that uses 3,632 square meters per GWh and a wind farm that uses 1,335 square meters per GWh. Subsidence and induced seis- micity are two land use issues that must be considered when withdrawing fluids from the ground. These are usually miti- gated by injecting the spent fluid back into the same reser- voir. There have been problems with subsidence at the Wairakei geothermal field in New Zealand; however, this has been checked by injection. Neither of these potential problems are associated with direct-use projects, as the fluid use is small and well and pipelines are usually hidden. In addition, utilizing geothermal resources eliminates the min- ing, processing and transporting required for electricity gen- eration from fossil fuel and nuclear resources. Impact on natural phenomena, wildlife and vegetation: Plants are usually prevented from being located near gey- sers, fumaroles and hot springs, as the extraction of fluids to run the turbines, might impact these thermal manifestations. Most plants are located in areas with no natural surface dis- charges. If plants are located near these natural phenomena, the fluid extraction depth is planned from a different reser- voir to prevent any impact. Designers and operators are es- pecially sensitive about preserving manifestations consid- ered sacred to indigenous people. Any site considered for a geothermal power plant, must be reviewed and considered for the impact on wildlife and vegetation, and if significant, provide a mitigation plan. Direct use projects are usually small and thus have no significant impact on natural fea- tures. In summary, the use of geothermal energy is reliable, pro- viding base load power; is renewable; has minimum air emission and offsets the high air emissions of fossil fuel- fired plants; has minimum environmental impacts; is com- bustion free; and is a domestic fuel source. ENERGY SAVINGS Using geothermal energy obviously replaces fossil fuel use and prevents the emission of greenhouse gases. If we as- sume that geothermal energy replaces electricity generation, the conversion efficiency is estimated at 0.35 (35%). These savings using geothermal energy at this efficiency level is summarized in Table 8 (Goddard and Goddard, 1990). If the replacement energy for direct-use is provided by burning the fuel directly, then about half this amount would be saved in heating systems (35% vs. 70% efficiency). Sav- ings in the cooling mode of geothermal heat pumps is also included in the figures in Table 8. The savings in fossil fuel Table 8. Energy and Greenhouse Gas Savings from Geothermal Energy Production Fuel Oil (06) Carbon (06 t) CO (06 t) SO (06 t) NO (0 t) 2XX Barrels Tonnes NG Oil Coal NG Oil Coal NG Oil Coal NG Oil Coal Electric 96 15 3 13 15 12 51 59 0 0.3 0.3 2.8 9.6 9.6 Direct-use 174 26 5 24 27 16 67 78 0 0.5 0.5 3.8 12.4 12.4 TOTAL 270 41 8 37 42 28 118 137 0 0.8 0.8 6.6 22.0 22.0 8 GHC BULLETIN, JUNE 2007PDF Image | CHARACTERISTICS, DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION GEOTHERMAL
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