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oil is equivalent to about three days (1%) of the world’s con- sumption. It should be noted when considering these savings, that some geothermal plants do emit limited amounts of the vari- ous pollutants; however, these are reduced to near zero where gas injection is used and eliminated where binary power is installed for electric power generation. Since most direct-use projects use only hot water and the spent fluid injected, the above pollutants are essentially eliminated. CONCLUSIONS Geothermal growth and development of electricity gener- ation has increased significantly over the past 30 years ap- proaching 15% annually in the early part of this period, and dropping to 3% annually in the last ten years due to an eco- nomic slow down in the Far East and the low price of com- peting fuels. Direct-use has remained fairly steady over the 30-year period at 10% growth annually. The majority of the increase has been due to geothermal heat pumps. At the start of this 30-year period, only ten countries reported electrical production and/or direct utilization from geothermal energy. By the end of this period, 72 countries reported utilizing geothermal energy. This is over a seven-fold increase in par- ticipating countries. At least another 10 countries are active- ly exploring for geothermal resources and should be online by 2010. Developments in the future will include greater emphases on combined heat and power plants, especially those using lower temperature fluids down to 100 ̊C. This low-tempera- ture cascaded use will improve the economics and efficiency of these systems, such as shown by installations in Germany, Austria and at Chena Hot Springs, Alaska. Also, there is in- creased interest in agriculture crop drying and refrigeration in tropical climates to preserve products that might normally be wasted. Finally, the largest growth will include the instal- lation and use of geothermal heat pumps, as they can be used anywhere in the world, as shown by the large developments in Switzerland, Sweden, Austria, Germany, Canada, and the United States. REFERENCES Anderson, D.N. and J.W. Lund (Editors), 1979. “Direct Utili- zation of Geothermal Energy: A Technical Handbook”, Spe- cial Report No. 7, Geothermal REsoureces Council, Davis, CA, 250 p. Bebout, D.G., Gavenda, V.J., and Gregory, A.R., 1978. “Geo- thermal Resources, Wilcox Group, Texas Gulf Coast”, U.S. Dept. of Energy, contract No.l EY-76-S-05-4891, 82p. Bertani, R., 2005. “World Geothermal General 2001-2005 -- State of the Art.” Geothermics, Vol 34, No. 6 (Dec.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands Bertani, R., 2007. “World Geothermal Generation in 2007”, Proceedings European Geothermal Congress, Unterhaching, Germany, 11 p. Cataldi, R., S. Hodgson and J. Lund (editors), 1999. Stories from a Heated Earth – Our Geothermal Heritage, Geothermal Resources Council, Davis, CA, 569 p. Goddard, W. B. and C. B. Goddard, 1990. “Energy Fuel Sources and Their Contribution to Recent Global Air Pollu- tion Trends.” Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 14, Davis, CA, pp. 643-649. Kagel, A., Bates, D., and K. Gawell, 2005. “A Guide to Geo- thermal Energy and the Environment,” Geothermal Energy Association, Washington, D. C., 75 p. Lund, J. W. and D. H. Freeston, 2001. “World-Wide Direct Uses of Geothermal Energy 2000.” Geothermics, v. 30, n.1, Elsevier, Oxford, UK, pp. 29-68 (updated and revised). Lund, J. W., D. H. Freeston and T. L. Boyd, 2005a. “World- wide Direct-Uses of Geothermal Energy 2005.” Geothermics, Vol. 34, No. 6 (Dec.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp. 691-727. Lund, J. W., Bloomquist, R.G., Boyd, T. L., and J. Renner, 2005b. “The United States of America Country Update – 2005.” Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 29, Davis, California (CD-ROM), 14 p. Lund, J. W. 2006. Chena Hot Springs, Geo-Heat Center Quar- terly Bulletin, Vol. 27, No. 3 (September), Klamath Falls, OR, pp. 2-4. Rybach, L., 2007. “Geothermal Sustainability “, Proceedings European Geothermal Congress, Unterhaching, Germany, 5 p. Tenzer, H., 2001. Development of Hot Dry Rock Technology, Geo-Heat Center Quarterly Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 4, (Decem- ber), Klamath Falls, OR, pp. 14-22. White, D.E., Buffler, L.J.P., and Truesdell, A.H., 1971. “Va- por-Dominated Hydrothermal Systems Compared with Hot- Water Systems”, Economic Geology, Vol. 66, pp. 75-97. White, D. E. and D. L. Williams, Eds., 1975. Assessment of Geothermal Resources of the United States – 1975, U.S. Geo- logical Survey Circular 727, U.S., Government Printing Of- fice, 155 p. Wright, M., 1998. Nature of Geothermal Resources, in Geo- thermal Direct-Use Engineering and Design Guidebook, ed- ited by John W. Lund, Geo-Heat Center, Klamath Falls, OR, pp. 27-69. GHC BULLETIN, JUNE 2007 9PDF Image | CHARACTERISTICS, DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION GEOTHERMAL
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