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o reducing variability/intermittency, the extent of uncontrolled changes in output (Sinden, 2005); o increasing maneuverability/dispatchability, the ability of a given power source to increase and/or decrease output quickly on demand (Kuntz and Dawe, 2005); o increasing capacity factor, the average expected output of a generator, usually over an annual period; o increasing capacity credit, the amount of output from a power source that may be statistically relied upon, expressed as a percentage (Giebel, 2011); and o allowing for higher penetration, the amount of energy generated as a percentage of annual consumption (Holttinen et al, 2011). District heating is expected to become important in the future (Lund, 2007, 2009 and 2010) as the energy industry changes the way district energy is produced and distributed (Froning, 2008; Nilsson et al, 2008), since policy on energy conservation poses stringent requirements in the building energy sector, which will lead to reduced space-heating loads and therefore to a lower required distribution temperature for heating. TES technologies will play an important role in low-energy district heating. The introduction of low-energy district heating networks will enhance energy and exergy efficiencies. The application of low-energy district heating offers many advantages: • higher energy output in biomass based and waste-based energy plants; • higher energy output from available medium temperature (60-100oC) water flows; • higher power-to-heat ratios in combined heat and power (CHP) plants; and • increased performance of water-based heat storage, amongst others. Torio and Schmidt (2010) carried out a case study on a small district heating system in Kassel (Germany). They have shown that lowering supply temperatures from 95 to 57.7oC increases the final exergy efficiency of the systems from 32% to 39.3%. Similarly, reducing return temperatures to the district heating network from 40.8 to 37.7oC increases the exergy performance in 3.7%. This report reviews the various types of TES technologies available which can be deployed based on technological limitations of current infrastructures and the future direction of energy systems. 9PDF Image | EPSRC Thermal Management of Industrial Processes
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