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watts each of radiated thermal energy. With the comprehensive energy conservation measures, this means that a conventional central heating system is not necessary, hence why these buildings can be considered as unconventional TES systems. A dual purpose 800 to 1,500 Watt heating and/or cooling element can be integrated with the air supply duct of the ventilation system for use on cold days. The heating element can be heated by a small heat pump via: • solar thermal energy; • annualised geothermal solar; • natural gas or oil burner; or • heat from the exhaust ventilation air. A well designed Passivhaus in the European climate should not need any supplemental heat source if the heating load is kept under 10W/m2 (Feist, 2011). Due to their design, passive houses usually have the following traits: • The air is fresh, and very clean; • High resistance to heat flow; • Internal temperature is homogeneous; • The temperature changes only very slowly - with ventilation and heating systems switched off, a passive house typically loses less than 0.5oC, stabilising at around 15oC (59oF) in the central European climate; • Briefly opening windows or doors has only a very limited effect; the air very quickly returns to the normal operating temperature after; and • Passivhaus in the United States can achieve 75 – 95% energy savings for space heating and cooling (Tanner, 2011); while in the UK an average new house built to the Passivhaus standard would use 77% less energy for space heating (Joosten et al, 2005); and in Ireland, energy savings of up to 85% and carbon emissions reduction of 94% (Kondratenko et al, 2006) 2.4 Passive Solar Heating Passive solar heating (PSH) distributes solar energy in the form of heat in the winter or at night and rejects solar heat in the summer or during the day. It does not involve the use of mechanical or electrical devices. The efficiency of PSV: • 5-25% for modest systems; • 40% for “highly optimized” systems; or • up to 75% for “very intense” systems There are six primary passive solar energy configurations (Chiras, 2002): • direct solar gain: attempts to control the amount of direct solar radiation reaching the living space. This direct solar gain is a critical part of passive solar house design; 12PDF Image | EPSRC Thermal Management of Industrial Processes
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