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Fossil Fuel and Geothermal Energy Sources for Local Use in Alaska Chapter A, Introduction GEOLOGIC REQUIREMENTS FOR EXPLOITABLE FOSSIL FUEL AND GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCES by James G. Clough, Paul L. Decker, Ken Helmold, and Christopher J. Nye INTRODUCTION Fossil fuel resources come from a variety of geologic sources, including coal, conventional oil and natural gas, and unconventional natural gas. Unlike fossil fuels, geothermal energy comes from heat in the Earth’s interior and is considered a renewable resource. In order for any of these energy sources to be present in a region as an exploitable resource, specific geologic features must be present. If any of the features required for a particular energy category are missing in a region, then that resource is considered to be not present in that region. The term ‘exploitable’ as used here means that the resource is present in sufficient quantities that it could be used as an energy source for local communities given currently available technology. This definition does not factor in the economics of developing a resource for local consumption. A resource may be present in an area, but the cost to develop might be too high compared to alternative energy sources. Alternatively, a fossil fuel resource may be present in an area and the economics of its use might be favorable enough to render other potential energy resources less attractive economically. The purpose of this chapter is to outline the geologic requirements for exploitable fossil fuel and geothermal resources. The economic and environmental costs of each energy category are beyond the scope of this chapter. The chapter concludes with an outline of the geologic requirements for an exploitable geothermal energy resource. In this report, we divide fossil fuel types into two categories: Conventional fossil fuels and unconventional fossil fuels. Conventional fossil fuel categories covered include coal and conventional oil and gas. Coal must be mined using underground or surface strip-mining techniques. Conventional oil and gas resources are hydrocarbons that will flow to extraction wells without having to make dramatic changes to either the reservoir rock or reservoir fluids. Unconventional oil and gas resources require either massive stimulation to create permeable conduits (tight gas sands and shale gas), thermal or chemical treatments to reduce oil viscosity (heavy oil and tar sands), or dewatering to promote the relative permeability of gas (coalbed methane). Unconventional fossil fuel categories covered include tight gas sands, shale gas, coalbed methane, and methane hydrates. Tar sands, or heavy oil deposits, share the same geologic requirements as conventional oil, but the viscosity is significantly higher than that of oil. Tar sands are not addressed in this chapter or this review, as there are no known exploitable occurrences of these resources in Alaska. GEOLOGIC REQUIREMENTS FOR EXPLOITABLE COAL RESOURCES by James G. Clough Coal is a brownish-black to black combustible organic sedimentary rock formed by the decomposition of plant material, typically in a swampy or boggy environment (fig. A1). This organic material, called peat, is buried, compacted, and hardened over millions of years. This process is called coalification. During coalification, peat undergoes several changes as a result of bacterial decay, compaction, heat, and time. Peat deposits are quite varied and contain everything from pristine plant parts (roots, bark, spores, etc.) to decayed plants. The coalification of peat passes progressively through four main phases of coal development: lignite, subbituminous coal, bituminous coal, and anthracite. These end products are composed primarily Figure A1. Diagram showing the steps in the formation of coal (Kentucky Geological Survey, 2006). of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and some sulfur along with water moisture and non-combustible ash (table A1). The rank of coal is based on the amount of carbon and volatiles (water and gas) in the coal, as well as the energy content of the coal. The amount of energy in coal is expressed in British thermal units (Btu) per pound. The higher a coal’s rank, the greater its heating value (table A1). Alaska coal formed in widespread deltaic, lacustrine (lake), and alluvial (river flood plains) depositional systems. Coals that formed in delta systems tend to be laterally extensive, whereas coals that formed in river floodplain settings tend not to be as laterally continuous. In Alaska, most of the coals originating in river floodplains tend to be younger than deltaic coals, tend to be of lower rank, and formed in sedimentary basins bounded by complex fault systems that controlled basin formation and influenced peat deposition by differential subsidence (settling or sinking of the land surface over time at different rates in different areas). The main coal areas in Alaska are shown in figure A2 (Merritt and Hawley, 1986) and include the North Slope (subbituminous Page 1 IntroductionPDF Image | FOSSIL FUEL AND GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SOURCES FOR LOCAL USE
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