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Chapter A, Introduction Fossil Fuel and Geothermal Energy Sources for Local Use in Alaska of source rocks). Stimulation involving a large hydraulic- fracture treatment is usually necessary to create fracture permeability to allow the reservoir to yield commercial gas-flow rates and produce commercial quantities of gas. reservoir rocks, the textural properties and grain composition of the reservoir rocks, and the fracture density in the reservoir rocks. It is also important to have some understanding of the regional geothermal and pressure gradients in the basin containing the tight reservoirs. Because of the low permeability nature of these reservoirs and the depth range at which they tend be located in sedimentary basins, the cost of developing tight gas reservoirs tends to be higher than conventional gas reservoirs (fig. A6). Figure A6 In fractured reservoirs (naturally fractured or stimulated), the drilling of horizontal wells may dramatically improve producibility over more traditional vertical wellbores, as horizontal wells tend to intersect a greater number of fractures than vertical wells. Tight gas reservoirs produce less gas over a longer period of time compared to conventional reservoirs. Because of this, more vertical wells or long horizontal wells must be drilled in tight reservoirs to produce commercial rates and volumes of gas. Hence, development costs are commonly higher than in conventional gas reservoirs. Introduction Tight gas reservoirs are quite varied in their geological and engineering characteristics and as such there is no typical or ideal example. Characteristics common to all tight reservoirs include: reservoirs that tend to have large areal extents and consist of interlayered, fine-grained sedimentary rocks, commonly sandstones and mudstones, with low permeabilities; have pore networks that are partially or completed filled with gas; have a large percentage of pores that are not interconnected, or have exceedingly small connections that impede, or block, the flow of gas (low permeability); contain gas that was derived from thermally-mature source rocks, as in conventional gas reservoirs; or will not produce gas unless the permeability of the reservoir is increased through massive stimulation efforts that commonly involve the creation of fractures in the reservoir. While some tight gas reservoirs are found at relatively shallow depths, most are located at substantially greater depths of burial, approaching 15,000 to 20,000 feet in many sedimentary basins (Naik, 2007). Exploration for tight gas sands differs from conventional reservoirs in that they generally extend over much larger areas and consist of interlayered strata of differing physical properties whose pore networks are saturated or partially saturated with gas. Conventional reservoirs have more limited boundaries, including a down-dip water contact, which is absent from continuous reservoirs (Naik, 2007). The down- dip water contact in conventional reservoirs results from the lower density of oil and gas relative to water. The vast majority of continuous reservoirs are charged with gas rather than crude oil. Exploration for, and production from, tight reservoirs requires thorough knowledge of the local geology. Important parameters that must be known include the stratigraphic distribution of source rocks and tight reservoirs in a basin, the physical and chemical characteristics of the gas source and Page 6 Figure A6. Resource triangle for natural gas (from Holditch, 2006). Shale Gas As an unconventional energy resource, shale gas has many similarities to coalbed methane. In fact, it is possible to have both methane-rich shales and coals interbedded in a single reservoir, resulting in production from both lithologies. About 1.0 Tscf (trillion standard cubic feet) of the nation’s 2.7 Tscf of unconventional gas production comes from more than 40,000 shale gas wells in five primary basins (Jenkins and Boyer, 2008). Worldwide shale-gas resources are estimated to exceed 16,000 Tscf. In conventional natural gas reservoirs, the gas has migrated from an organic-rich source rock into pore spaces between sand grains in the reservoir (refer to the section in this chapter on conventional oil and gas for more information). The source rocks are often black, organic-rich shales that have formed in sedimentary deposits given sufficient geologic time (generally millions or more years) and depth of burial. In unconventional shale gas reservoirs, the organic-rich shale is both the source rock and the reservoir. Shale gas can be generated through thermogenic or biogenic processes, and the geologic setting of the basin determines which process is operative. Shale gas source rocks are not as rich in carbonPDF Image | FOSSIL FUEL AND GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SOURCES FOR LOCAL USE
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