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Chapter A, Introduction Fossil Fuel and Geothermal Energy Sources for Local Use in Alaska Unfortunately, out of the thousands of natural springs in Alaska, only a very few have sufficient temperature and flow rates needed to produce enough electricity to export power from the plant. In some limited cases where high near-surface heat exists, these fluid flow and heat transfer systems can be enhanced by drilling and fracture technology if the geologic conditions are right. Most of the Earth is not near volcanoes or close to major active faults and therefore lacks open space or fractures that can heat fluids, which are necessary for a shallow geothermal system. In these areas enhanced systems must be created. However, the geothermal industry has long known that developable heat exists within drillable depths in most areas of the globe, yet a technically feasible way to transfer that heat to the surface in economic quantities has been very elusive. If this methodology can be developed, it has the potential to access a tremendous energy resource. One interesting development in this research effort is the use of techniques devised by the oil and gas industry to fracture rocks far below the surface by pumping huge volumes of fluid at very high pressure into the deep strata. The theory contends that once the rocks are broken and permeability established, it is possible to pump cold water down one hole into hot rocks and recover it from a second hole thousands of feet away. If a sufficient network of interconnected fractures can be created at great depths, and hydraulic connection can be established between distant well bores, the water will ‘mine’ heat from the fracture surfaces between the two holes and become hot enough for direct use and/or electrical power generation. For these types of “enhanced geothermal systems” (EGS) to work, a number of geologic and physical attributes must be present, including brittle stratigraphy and an existing stress regime that is conducive to fracture propagation of sufficient length and orientation. There has been a wide variance in outcomes from pilot EGS programs, often related to the wide variability of sub-surface geology. Despite many failures, there are some promising experiments underway in France, Germany, and Austria where six small projects are generating between 0.25 and 3.5 megawatts of electrical power from wells between 7,000 and 16,000 feet deep and at temperatures from 206°F (97°C) to 250°F (121°C). A major challenge for any low- temperature application is whether there is enough power generated to run all of the equipment and pumps used in the operation and send the excess offsite. After the power is generated, additional heat is removed from the water for space heating as a part of some of the projects. These European projects have all been expensive, government- supported research projects to date and have taken many years to develop; but with this experience in hand, plans have recently been announced for more than 100 future projects in Germany alone, with outputs as high as 8.5 megawatts for individual projects. In Australia, numerous press releases are touting much higher potential electrical outputs, but no projects are yet on line. Development of enhanced geothermal systems will continue to be a mostly experimental program for the next several years, but bears close scrutiny because there may come a time when it could be used in Alaska where local geologic conditions are favorable. REFERENCES CITED AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM), 1983, Stan- dard classification of coal by rank—ASTM designation D388-82 in gaseous fuels, coal and coke: Philadelphia, 1983 Book of Standards, v. 5.05. ———1995, Standard classification of coal by rank—ASTM designation D388-82: Philadelphia, 1995 Book of Stan- dards, v. 5.05, p. 168–171. Anderson, B.J., Wilder, J.W., Kurihara, Masanori, White, M.D., Moridis, G.J., Wilson, S.J., Pooladi-Darvish, M., Masuda, Y., Collett, T.S., Hunter, R.B., Narita, H., Rose, K., and Boswell, Ray, 2008, Analysis of modular dynamic formation test results from the Mount Elbert 01 strati- graphic test well, Milne Point Unit, North Slope Alaska: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Gas Hydrates (ICGH 2008), July 6–10, 2008, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, 13 p. (on CD–ROM). Ayers, W.B., Jr., 2002, Coalbed gas systems, resources and production and a review of contrasting cases from the San Juan and Powder River basins, in Law, B.E., and Curtis, J.B., eds., Unconventional Petroleum Systems: AAPG Bulletin, v. 86, no. 11, p. 1,853–1,890. Bowen, B.H., and Irwin, M.W., 2008, Coal Characteristics, CCTR Basic Facts File #8, Purdue University, http:// www.purdue.edu/discoverypark/energy/assets/pdfs/ cctr/outreach/Basics8-CoalCharacteristics-Oct08.pdf Burton, Elizabeth, Friedmann, Julio, Upadhye, Ravi, 2007, Best practices in underground coal gasification; Techni- cal report: Livermore, California, Lawrence Livermore National Lab, 119 p. Bustin, R.M., and Clarkson, C.R., 1998, Geological controls on coalbed methane reservoir capacity and gas content: International Journal of Coal Geology, v. 38, no. 1-2, p. 3–26. Collett, T.S., 1995, Gas hydrate resources of the United States, in Gautier, D.L., Dolton, G.L., Takahashi, K.I., and Varnes, K.L., eds., 1995 National assessment of United States oil and gas resources—Results, methodology, and supporting data: U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series 30 (on CD–ROM). ———2004, Gas hydrates as a future energy resource: Geo- times, v. 49, no. 11, p. 24–27. Collett, T.S., Agena, W.F., Lee, M.W., Zyrianova, M.V., Bird, K.J., Charpentier, R.R., Cook, Troy, Houseknecht, D.W., Klett, T.R., Pollastro, R.M., and Schenk, C.J., 2008, As- sessment of gas hydrate resources on the North Slope, Introduction Page 10PDF Image | FOSSIL FUEL AND GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SOURCES FOR LOCAL USE
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