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Fossil Fuel and Geothermal Energy Sources for Local Use in Alaska Glossary diagenesis—A general term that encompasses changes to a sediment after initial deposition as the material is gradually buried beneath successively younger sediments. These changes result in progressive alterations to the sediment’s original mineralogy and texture with increasing depth and time of burial. Burial diagenesis is the process through which plant and animal matter are transformed into hydrocarbons. eoCene— An epoch of the tertiary period of the geologic time scale. It is set within the Paleogene subperiod, covering the time period between 53 million and 34 million years ago. fault scarp—A topographic high resulting from the vertical displacement of the land surface by movement along faults. fault zone—A fracture zone along which there has been displacement on the sides relative to each other parallel to the zone. fluvial—Of or pertaining to a river or stream and its associated landforms including terraces, floodplains, and lakes. Sediments deposited by fluvial processes may show evidence of transportation of coarser grains by currents along the river or stream bottom, or as suspended fine sediments. Meandering rivers and streams often create “oxbow lakes”—U-shaped lakes that are abandoned river channels that may develop into swamps that accumulate peat and subsequently form coal deposits. fold—A bend in bedding or some other planar feature in a rock. Folding is usually, but not always, caused by deformation. Folds that are convex upward are referred to as anticlines and folds that are convex downward are referred to as synclines. forearc basin—A sedimentary basin, usually elongate, lying between the volcanic arc and the accretionary prism in a convergent plate boundary zone. foreland basin—A type of sedimentary basin caused by a downward flexing of the crust due to unusually thick crust in an adjacent compressional mountain belt. fossil fuel—A general term for any hydrocarbon or carbonaceous rock that may be used for fuel: primarily petroleum, natural gas, and coal. fracking—See ‘hydraulic fracturing’ fumarole—A vent, usually volcanic, from which gases and vapors are emitted; it is characteristic of a late stage of volcanic activity. Fumaroles may occur along a fissure or in apparently chaotic clusters or fields. gas hydrate—A naturally-occurring, ice-like solid in which water molecules trap gas molecules in a cage-like structure known as a ‘clathrate.’ Gas hydrates occur under a very limited range of temperature and pressure conditions, such as in the permafrost environments of the arctic (Collett, 2004). geothermometer—A mineral or other feature in a rock that forms within a known temperature, pressure, and composition range. The mineral can be used to infer conditions of formation, such as temperature. geothermal gradient—The rate of increase in temperature with increasing depth below the Earth’s surface. The geothermal gradient differs from place to place due to differences in the thermal conductivity of different rock types. geyser—A type of hot spring that intermittently erupts jets of hot water and steam, the result of groundwater coming into contact with hot rock at considerable depth, usually more than 6,600 feet (2,000 m). The combination of boiling water at depth results in pressurized steam that streams to the surface and sprays out of the geyser’s surface vent in a hydrothermal explosion. Geysers are fairly rare and generally occur only active volcanic areas. graben—An elongate trough or basin, bounded on both sides by nearly parallel high-angle normal faults that dip toward one another. A graben forms as the result of a block of land being downthrown, producing a valley with a distinct fault scarp on each side. Graben often occur side-by-side with horst structures (see horst). Such horst and graben structures indicate tensional forces in action due to crustal stretching. granite—Broadly defined as any quartz-bearing, crystalline plutonic rock. holoCene—The holoCene is a geologic epoch, which began at the end of the PleistoCene (about 11,500 years ago) and continues to the present. horst—A horst is an uplifted, elongate block formed by parallel normal faults; they are often associated with complementary downthrown blocks called graben (see graben). Horst blocks in the subsurface may create traps for preserving hydrocarbons and are often the targets of oil and gas exploration. hydraulic fracturing—The process of pumping fluids under high pressure into a well to create artificial fractures, typically in low permeability rocks. This process, known as Induced Hydraulic Fracturing, often utilizes propping agents such as grains of sand, ceramic, or other particulates to prevent the newly created fractures from closing once injection is stopped. The new fractures create pathways that allow hydrocarbons to flow from the reservoir into the wellbore. igneous rock—A mineral or rock that formed by crystallizing from molten material (magma). One of the three main classes of rock. JurassiC— The middle period of the mesozoiC era of the geologic time scale, spanning between 200 million and 145.5 million years ago. kerogen—The organic component of sedimentary rocks that are insoluble to alkaline and common organic solvents. lacustrine—Pertaining to sediments formed in a lake or lakes; for example, “lacustrine sands” deposited on the bottom of a lake or shoreline. In contrast to seas and oceans, lakes are smaller, nearly closed systems with Page 141 Appendix IIPDF Image | FOSSIL FUEL AND GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SOURCES FOR LOCAL USE
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