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Fig. 3. A micro-organic Rankine power system [78]. water and clean electricity. On-site tests carried out in Lesotho (Fig. 4) by Solar Turbine Group International prove that micro- solar ORC based on HVAC components is cost-effective in off-grid areas of developing countries where billions of people continue to live without access to electricity [64,79,80]. Another system which integrates scroll expander and steam accumulator was reported by Saitoh et al. [75]. Water in the latter system was used as the heat transfer fluid while R113 is the working medium. Laboratory tests performed with 200 liters of hot water stored in the accumulator and working fluid mass flow rate of 0.016 kg/s, gave expander effi- ciency of 63%, power output 450 W and Rankine cycle efficiency 12%. Autonomous operation tests at Sendai City, Japan, on a typical summer day: solar radiation – 890 W/m2 and ambient temperature 30 ◦ C gave as results: power output 350 W, ORC efficiency 11%, and system efficiency 7%. Hybrid systems involving another energy source in addition to solar have been also considered [81,82]. Hybrid systems have nearly 100% availability and avoid the integration of bulky and expensive energy storage system. An example of hybrid solar/gas driven micro-combined heat and power (CHP) system was reported by Yagoub et al. [81]. A schematic of the system is shown in Fig. 5. This system uses 25kW evacuated tube collectors and 25 kW gas condensing boiler. Two pairs of fluid/pump were tested: HFE-301/electric pump and n-Pentane/diaphragm pump. HFE-301 presented several advantages over n-Pentane (R601): higher effi- ciencies, lower temperature requirement, higher vapor dryness, and higher isentropic efficiency (85% versus 40%). An advanced concept of mini-hybrid solar/diesel power plant integrating solar concentrators, two superposed organic Rankine cycles and a diesel engine was proposed by Kane et al. [83]. Linear Fresnel collectors track the sun and concentrate the rays on the receiver tube in which pressurized water circulates. Superposed cycles use hermetic scroll expander/generators, and R123 and R134a as working fluids (Fig. 6). The diesel engine was integrated to guarantee a minimum level of both power and heat availability at night or during periods of low radiation. Laboratory and on-site tests carried out at Ecole Poly- technique Federale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland gave system efficiency of 7.74% in “solar only” mode and 41% in “fossil fuel only” mode. A 1 MW solar ORC power plant owned by Arizona Public Service (APS) is in operation since 2006 at Red Rock in Arizona, USA [84]. LS- 2 collectors provided by Solargenix are coupled to an ORMAT ORC module filled with n-Pentane. The ORC and solar to electricity effi- ciency are 20.7% and 12.1%, respectively. McMahan [69] proposed the cycle efficiency maximization (optimal heat exchanger area) as a way to reduce the plant capital cost (down to 17%). In 2009, a 2 MW CSP plant was inaugurated at the National Energy Laboratory of Hawai Authority (NELHA) in the Kona desert, Hawai, USA [85,86]. This project was funded and developed by Sopogy under the Hawai Clean Energy Initiative. Solar parabolic trough collectors were sup- plied by Alanod Aluminium-Veredlung and the ORC machines by ElectraTherm Inc. According to the project developer the ultimate goal is to reach 30 MW by 2015. Considering the development of cheap and efficient solar concentrating collectors and reliable and cost effective ORC modules, more medium scale solar CSP plants are to be expected in the near future. 2.2.2. Solar pond power systems A solar pond power plant (SPPP) is made of two subsystems: a salt gradient solar pond and a conventional Organic Rankine Cycle. The salt gradient solar pond (SGSP) is a flat and uncovered large reservoir of water acting as a liquid solar thermal collector/heat store. It absorbs solar radiation (diffuse and direct), transforms it into heat and stores it in the form of hot water. A salt gradient solar pond is artificially divided into three zones [87]: • The upper convective layer of thickness between 0.15 and 0.30 m with low salinity water acts as a transparent cover and thermal insulator. • The bottom layer of thickness from 2 up to 7 m with high- concentration brine that acts as a heat absorber and heat store. • Themiddlelayerofthicknessbetween1and1.5mactsasanaddi- tional insulator and is called the gradient salt layer. In this layer, salinity and temperature increase from the top to the bottom. B.F. Tchanche et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3963–3979 3967 Collector: Parabolic Trough, Array area: 75 m2, Thermal efficiency: 0.6, ORC efficiency: 0.1, System output: 3 kW, Thermal input: 37 kW, Working fluid: R245fa Linear Parabolic Collector Circulating Pump Fig. 4. Schematic of the solar ORC tested in Lesotho [79]. Expander Vaporizer Working fluid pump Air Condenser Heat Recovery GeneratorPDF Image | Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15
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