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This phenomenon was discovered in 1902 by Kalecsinsky in a lake located near Szovata, Transyslvania [88]. The maximum tem- perature obtained in a pond is about 90–100 ◦ C, making it suitable for Rankine Cycles working with low boiling point organic fluids such as R134a and Propane (R290). The configuration of the salt gra- dient solar pond matches the sources of an Organic Rankine Cycle. The upper layer serves as cold source to cool the condenser while the bottom layer supplies the evaporator with heat. The principle of operation is simple; during the day, the pond is charged while the extraction of heat can be scheduled for precise period of time. During operation, the bottom layer supplies heat to the evaporator where it is used to evaporate the working fluid. The fluid at vapor state is expanded in the turbine and cooled in the condenser before being pumped to the evaporator to close the cycle. A solar pond power system is illustrated in Fig. 7. The thermal performance of a solar pond is around 15–25% while the solar-to- electric efficiency is about 0.8–2% [88]. Research on solar ponds started in Israel in 1950–1970 and the first solar pond with a surface area of 1100 m2 was built in 1975 at the Dead Sea Works [87,88]. Since that period, several power plants based on this technology were constructed and operated at different sites around the world: 5 MW–250,000 m2 SPPP at Beith Ha’avara, Israel; Ein Boqek, Israel (150 kW/6250 m2 ); Yavne, Isreal (6 kW/1500 m2 ); Alice Springs, Australia (15 kW/1600 m2 ); El Paso, USA (70 kW/3350 m2 ). 2.3. SolarORC-ROdesalinationsystems Desalination consists of removing salt and other solids particles from raw water so called seawater or brackish water depending on the concentration of salts to make it suitable for human con- sumption. Desalination technologies are classified in two groups according to their separation mechanism: thermal and membrane based technologies [89]. Thermal desalination separates salt from water by evaporation and condensation, whereas in membrane desalination water diffuses through a membrane, while the salts are almost completely retained. Reverse osmosis (RO) and multi-stage flash (MSF) are the most widely used technologies. Recently, there has been a trend to couple desalination techniques with renew- able energy in order to reduce the impact of conventional power plants on the environment. The aforementioned techniques can be coupled either with solar PV panels or solar thermal collectors. RO can be powered by electricity or mechanical power. Reverse osmo- sis is a pressure driven separation technique based on a property of certain polymers called semi-permeability. While they are very permeable for water, their permeability for dissolved substances is low. By applying a pressure difference across the membrane the water contained in the feed is forced to permeate through the membrane. In order to overcome the feed side osmotic pressure, fairly high feed pressure is required. Pressures applied in reverse osmosis applications vary from 15 to 25 bars for brackish water and 60–80 bars for seawater. Pumping process can be easily achieved through electricity or shaft power thus, making RO the most suit- able candidate for renewable energy powered desalination system. A solar driven ORC-RO system couples a solar thermal engine and a RO desalination sub-system (Fig. 8). The solar thermal engine trans- forms the solar radiation into mechanical power. The useful shaft power by mechanical coupling drives the high pressure pump (HPP) of the RO unit. Early research on solar thermal driven pumping systems involv- ing the Rankine power cycle started in the second half of the 19th century with the works of Augustin Mouchot and Abel Pifre [90]. From that time till the end of the 20th century, the main appli- cation targeted was the small scale water pumping systems for irrigation of farms. Many systems operating on this scheme were built in many countries around the world as reported by Delgado- Torres [90] and Wong and Sumathy [91]. These systems used steam or organic compounds such as R11, R114 and R113 as working fluids. Solar driven irrigation systems are of special significance in countries where the economy relies on agricultural activities undertaken by poor farmers in remote areas far from electricity grid, and in a context of water scarcity and increasing oil prices. Since the 1980s, solar PV-water pumping systems favored by the decreasing cost of PV, modularity and less moving parts are being preferred to solar thermal pumping systems. At the moment the global warming is being considered as a major threat to our life, solar thermal engines are suggested for powering RO-desalination units. Earliest plant is reported to have been constructed in Cadarache, France [92]. The high pressure pump was powered by a 2.5 kW solar heat engine with R114 as working fluid, and a fresh water production of 2.5 m3 /h from brack- ish water. Steam RC-RO systems have been studied by Voros et al. [93] and Bouzayani et al. [94]. These authors consider steam tem- perature of about 450 ◦ C at the turbine inlet. The implementation of organic fluids with appropriate critical temperature such as Toluene, Siloxanes, Ammonia, Pentanes, etc. in medium and low temperature ORC-RO systems is possible. Recently, Bruno et al. [7] carried out technical and economic feasibility study of solar ORC- RO desalination technologies and concluded that solar ORC-RO is B.F. Tchanche et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3963–3979 3969 Fig. 7. Principle of a Solar pond power plant.PDF Image | Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15
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