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3970 B.F. Tchanche et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3963–3979 Fig. 8. Schematic of a Rankine driven reverse osmosis desalination system (ETC: solar thermal collectors; EV: evaporator; EX: expander; HPP: high pressure pump; P1, P2, P3: pumps, HT: hydraulic turbine; CD: condenser; RO: membrane modules; BR: brine; PE: permeate; SW: seawater; BW: brackish water). a cost-effective option in comparison to PV-RO. Parabolic trough collectors in single or double cascade ORC with Toluene, Pentanes or Propylbenzene as working fluids could form the baseline tech- nology for large and medium size solar ORC-RO systems. Cycles operating with maximum temperature of 250–400 ◦ C and 35 ◦ C condensing temperature yield a cycle efficiency of about 25–35%. Under this condition, a 15 m3 /day plant could produce water at about 2.30 D/m3 from brackish water or 5 D/m3 from seawater. Solar ORC-RO could be scaled down using well known HVAC components. In this perspective, Manolakos et al. [95,96] designed and tested a small stand-alone system using a scroll expander, evacuated tube solar collectors and R134a as working medium. Economic comparison [97] showed the basic Rankine Cycle config- uration was not cost effective compared to PV-RO systems of similar size. Cost comparison study in case of seawater for Thirasia Island, Greece gave cost figures of 7.77 D/m3 for PV-RO and 12.53 D/m3 for ORC-RO. In sake of optimal use of solar collectors, Kosmadakis et al. [98] suggested a dual organic Rankine cycle system. 2.4. Duplex-Rankinecoolingsystem Solar assisted air-conditioning systems with the advantages they have to reduce the summer electricity peak load and energy consumption in buildings as well as in industries have been a field of intensive R&D in the 1970s at the period of the oil crisis and were abandoned soon after the crisis. Recently many activities related to the development of solar cooling applications were restarted. Hen- ning [99] and Kim and Ferreira [100] have listed technical options from the solar radiation to the cooling effect: sorption (adsorp- tion, absorption, desiccant), PV electricity (vapor compression) and thermo-mechanical option (Rankine, ejector, Stirling). In a solar thermo-mechanical refrigeration system, a heat engine converts solar heat into mechanical work, which in turn drives a mechanical vapour compression refrigeration machine. Heat engines such as Stirling engine, Brayton cycle and the Rankine engine can be used for this purpose. A schematic of such cooling system is shown in Fig. 9. In a Duplex-Rankine cooling system, Rankine engine serves as heat engine and solar energy captured by solar collectors is turned into heat using a heat transfer fluid. This thermal energy is fur- ther transferred to the working fluid of the Rankine engine through the evaporator. The Rankine engine subsequently, transforms the heat received into mechanical power to drive the compressor of the vapor compression machine. The overall Coefficient of perfor- mance of the solar combined Rankine cooling system defined as the ratio of cold energy produced to the incident solar radiation is the product of the efficiencies of the solar collector, the Rankine power cycle and the cooling machine [100]. The literature review reveals little interest on this topic. Most activities on this technology were carried out in USA, Japan and Saoudi-Arabia in 1970s and 1980s and mainly theoretical investigations are reported. Lior [101] studied a solar-powered, Fig. 9. Solar thermo-mechanical refrigeration system.PDF Image | Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15
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