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B.F. Tchanche et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3963–3979 3971 Fig. 10. Solar heated Rankine combined power/air conditioning system [102]. fuel-superheated Rankine cycle incorporating a steam turbine. A superheater is integrated into the system to avoid a two-phase operation of the turbine. This system was designed to work in cool- ing as well as in heating mode. Because of the economy-of-scale, this option would only be applicable for large refrigeration systems. For low-power systems and moderate temperature heat sources, design problems arise: excessive turbine shaft speed, high degree of superheat (∼560◦C), turbine-blade erosion, etc. [14]. To over- come the design difficulties, organic fluids were suggested by Wali [14] who assessed different possibilities and proposed R113 as a suitable fluid. A prototype of solar Rankine driven cooling system was designed and tested by Barber-Nichols Engineering Co., USA, in the framework of a project co-funded by Honeywell Inc. and the National science Foundation [102]. The demonstration package developed for supplying residential cooling and/or electricity via a solar heated Rankine cycle as depicted in Fig. 10, comprised a 3-ton air conditioning working with R12, 1-kW electric system, a R113 Rankine cycle, and a solar collector that provides warm water at 102 ◦ C. With a turbine efficiency of 80% and a compressor efficiency of 85%, the coefficient of performance of the combined Rankine/air conditioning system is 0.71. The system thermal ratio or solar COP is 0.21, considering solar collector efficiency of 30%. In the 1970s, Duplex-Rankine systems were considered for fur- ther competition with absorption but it was later abandoned. In such system, the prediction of component performance at off- design conditions and the matching of components into a complete system so that the overall performance is optimized are not easy. An adequate control strategy is needed to ensure matching the Rankine cycle and the air conditioner. Moreover, substances used as working fluids are harmful for the environment. A system- cost comparison carried by Kim and Ferreira [100] shows that duplex-Rankine with 2300D/kWcool is cheaper compared with other thermo-mechanical systems but two to three-fold expensive in comparison to sorption options. For the abovementioned rea- sons, sorption systems utilizing environmentally friendly working media are preferred today. Fig. 11. The combined ejector/Rankine cycle [105]. A new path being explored is the combination of Rankine and ejector/absorption cycles for simultaneous production of cooling and power. A combined power and cooling cycle that combines Rankine and absorption refrigeration cycles and uses ammonia- water mixture was proposed by Goswami [103]. Wang et al. [104] proposed and performed thermodynamic analysis of a new com- bined cooling, heating and power (CCHP) system which combines Rankine and ejector refrigeration cycles. In their system, vapor extracted from the turbine supplies the ejector and the heat to users. Another combined Rankine/ejector system was designed, built and tested by Oliveira et al. [105]. As shown in Fig. 11, the ejector is mounted in parallel with the expander. Two prototypes were tested in Porto, Portugal and Loughborough, UK. The overall COP obtained was about 3.5% for a boiler temperature of 95 ◦ C and ambient temperature of about 20◦C. 2.5. Ocean thermal energy conversion systems The Earth’s oceans cover over 70% of the planet and could be utilized as a source of virtually inexhaustible renewable energy. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) by the way it employs natural thermal stratification occurring in oceans is being proposed to harness this huge amount of untapped energy, it converts solar radiation stored in the upper ocean water layers into electric power. Vertical ocean seawater temperature distribution has been mea- sured in many regions around the world, and surface seawater at less than 50 m from sea level is warm at 20–29 ◦ C while at a depth of about 800 or more the temperature is about 2–7 ◦ C. To be effective, the minimum temperature difference between the ocean surface layers should be around 20 ◦ C [106]. These temperature gradients are found in tropical regions near the Equator (Fig. 12). The first known OTEC system was proposed by Arsene d’Arsonval, in 1881 [107]. He built a closed OTEC system with ammonia as working fluid. Ammonia was selected for its low boil- ing point as it could boil at low temperature. But the technology was never tested by d’Arsonval himself. George Claude overtook the challenge by proposing and successfully testing the open-cycle concept. Nevertheless, most of his attempts to put OTEC into prac- tical use ended in failure. In 1962, H. Anderson and his son James H. Anderson Jr., began full scale design analysis of OTEC systems and conceived a new OTEC plant which overcame the weak points of Claude’s system. Later, the energy crisis of 1973 provided the moti- vation for Japan and USA to perform fundamental research. Today, there are five different cycles known for OTEC. These are [107,108]: open OTEC cycle, closed OTEC cycle, hybrid OTEC cycle, Kalina cyclePDF Image | Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15
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