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Table 5 Waste heat sources and temperature range [115]. Categories High temperature (>650 ◦ C) Medium temperature (230–650 ◦ C) Low temperature (<230 ◦ C) Heat sources Solid waste Fume incinerators Nickel refining furnace Glass melting furnace Aluminum refining furnaces Copper reverberatory furnace Copper refining furnace Zinc refining furnace Cement kiln Hydrogen plants Steam boiler exhaust Gas turbine exhaust Drying and baking ovens Catalytic crackers Reciprocating engine exhausts Drying and baking ovens Catalytic crackers Annealing furnace cooling systems Process steam condensate Cooling water from: Internal combustion engines Hot processed liquids and solids Annealing furnaces Drying, baking and curing ovens Welding and injection molding machines Bearings Air compressors Temperature (◦ C) 650–1000 650–1450 1370–1650 1000–1550 650–760 900–1100 760–815 760–110 620–730 650–1000 230–480 370–540 230–600 425–650 315–600 230–600 425–650 425–650 50–90 66–120 32–232 66–230 93–230 32–88 32–88 27–50 Suggested recovery technology Air preheating Steam Rankine cycle Steam generation (Heating) Heat exchanger (preheating) Thermoelectric Thermal PV Steam Rankine cycle Organic Rankine cycle Heat exchangers (pre–heating process) Air pre-heating Thermoelectric Thermal PV Space heating Domestic water heating Heat pump Organic Rankine Cycle Heat exchangers Absorption/adsorption cooling Kalina cycle Piezoelectric B.F. Tchanche et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3963–3979 3973 heat boilers, etc.), heat pumps, absorption/adsorption cooling machines and heat-to-electricity converters. Power generation from waste heat can be achieved using thermodynamic power cycles [114]: steam Rankine cycle, organic Rankine cycle, Kalina cycle, Goswami cycle, and transcritical/supercritical cycles or direct processes in [115]: thermoelectric, thermionic, and piezoelec- tric devices. Whereas heat driven power cycles are advanced or already mature, direct conversion techniques are still under development. In general, conventional steam cycles operate in medium to high temperature and have gained in maturity since the 1970s, but cannot be cost-effective neither at smaller scale nor for low tem- perature resources [118]. In the low-to-medium temperature range organic Rankine cycles and Kalina cycles have demonstrated their ability to serve with advantage going to the first, which show less complexity. Heat transfer from the hot site to the power cycle can be executed by two ways [119]: (1) exhaust/process heat and working fluid streams exchange in the same heat exchanger or (2) a ther- mal oil loop is integrated to avoid risky contact between exhaust flows and flammable working fluid (Fig. 14). The choice of the ORC machine primarily depends on the heat source temperature and the desired power output[60]. As illustration, the tri-O-gen machine is designed for heat sources above 350 ◦ C and produces up to 165 kW while PureCycle280 (Pratt & Whitney) produces up to 250 kW and is suitable for source temperature below 150◦C [120]. Although customized ORC modules can be ordered from suppliers, major dif- ficulty resides in the optimal design and integration of the heat exchangers network aiming at maximizing the heat recovery effi- ciency. Selected systems are listed in Table 6. Features of ORCs in waste heat recovery application include but are not limited to the followings[121]: • On-site power generation. • Saving in power and additional income for the factory. • Low O&M costs (no additional staff hired). • No interference with operator’s main tasks. • Reduction in pollution (greenhouse gas emissions, thermal pol- This technology is progressively adopted for fuel efficiency and environmental protection in very different areas and processes where waste heat is available: power plants [19,122–125], man- ufacturing processes [126–128], cooling of technical equipment a1 6 Expander-Generator G b Fluid pump Expander-Generator 5 Oil pump 1 Condenser 43 Evaporator 2 To the grid Water pump G Vapor generator Condenser 43 Fluid pump To the 2 grid Water pump lution). Fig. 14. Rankine cycles configurations in waste heat recovery application. Hot exhaust HEAT SOURCEPDF Image | Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15
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