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the maximum theoretical efficiency of converting thermal from the heat source to another form of energy (i.e., mechanical or electrical). Finally, the temperature range has important ramifications for the selection of materials in heat exchanger designs Waste heat recovery opportunities are categorized in this report by dividing temperature ranges into low, medium, and highquality of waste heat8 sources as follows: High: Medium: Low: 1,200oF [649oC] 450oF [232oC] 450oF [232oC] and higher to 1,200oF [650oC] and lower9 Typical sources of low, medium, and hightemperature waste heat are listed in Table 4, along with related recovery advantages, barriers, and applicable technologies. 2.2.1 Heat Exchanger Area Requirements The temperature of waste heat influences the rate of heat transfer between a heat source and heat sink, which significantly influences recovery feasibility. The expression for heat transfer can be generalized by the following equation: • Q = UAΔT (W or Btu/s) Equation (2) Where Q is the heat transfer rate; U is the heat transfer coefficient; A is the surface area for heat exchange; and ΔT is the temperature difference between two streams. Since heat transfer is a function of U, area, and ΔT, a small ΔT will require a larger heat transfer. Figure 1 Influence of Temperature Difference on Required Heat Exchanger Area 10,000 9,000 8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 U = 5 W/(m2 • °K) U = 10 W/(m2 • °K) U = 25 W/(m2 • °K) U = 75 W/(m2 • °K) 0 Difference in Temperature Between Heat Source and Heat Sink (°F) Figure 1 The Influence of Source and Sink Temperature (ΔT) on Required Heat Exchanger Area This figure graphs the surface area (m2) required for recovering 10 million Btu/hr from a gaseous exhaust stream with a mass flow rate of 5 million lbs/hr by transfer to liquid water flowing at 1 ft3/s. Calculated from Equation 2 using estimated log mean temperature difference for ΔT. 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 7 Heat Exchanger Area (m2)PDF Image | Waste Heat to Energy Tech Opportunities in US Industry
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