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patents dealing with fouling. The significant patent activity and continued antidotal reports indicate that fouling remains an unresolved problem; moreover, a large portion of the research is reactive, involving methods for easily cleaning fouling, rather than methods for preventing fouling.11 2.4 Minimum Allowable Temperature The minimum allowable temperature for waste streams is often closely connected with material corrosion problems. Depending on the fuel used, combustion related flue gases contain varying concentrations of carbon dioxide, water vapor, NOX, SOX, unoxidized organics, and minerals. If exhaust gases are cooled below the dew point temperature, the water vapor in the gas will condense and deposit corrosive substances on the heat exchanger surface. Heat exchangers designed from lowcost materials will quickly fail due to chemical attack. Therefore, heat exchangers are generally designed to maintain exhaust temperatures above the condensation point. The minimum temperature for preventing corrosion depends on the composition of the fuel. For example, exhaust gases from natural gas might be cooled as low as ~250°F [~120°C], while exhaust gases from coal or fuel oils with higher sulfur contents may be limited to ~300 °F [~150oC] to ~350°F [~175°C].12 Minimum exhaust temperatures may also be constrained by processrelated chemicals in the exhaust stream; for example, sulfates in exhaust gases from glass melting furnaces will deposit on heat exchanger surfaces at temperatures below about 510oF [270oC]. The most common method for preventing chemical corrosion is designing heat exchangers with exhaust temperatures well above the dew point temperature. However, there are some cases where heat exchangers use advanced alloys and composite materials to further recover lowtemperature heat. These systems have not seen much commercial application due to challenges such as high material costs, large surface areas required for heat exchange, and lack of an available enduse for lowtemperature waste heat. Heat recovery at low temperatures is discussed further in Section 3.3. 2.5 Economies of Scale, Accessibility, and Other Factors Several additional factors can determine whether heat recovery is feasible in a given application. For example, smallscale operations are less likely to install heat recovery, since sufficient capital may not be available, and because payback periods may be longer. Operating schedules can also be a concern. If a waste heat source is only available for a limited time every day, the heat exchanger may be exposed to both high and low temperatures. In this case, one must ensure that the heat exchange material does not fatigue due to thermal cycling. Additionally, it is important that the schedule for the heat source match the schedule for the heat load. If not, additional systems may be required to provide heat when the waste heat source is not available. Another concern is the ease of access to the waste heat source. In some cases, the physical constraints created by equipment arrangements prevent easy access to the heat source, or prevent the installation of any additional equipment for recovering the heat. Additionally, constraints are presented by the 11 Figure 3 Abandoned Recuperator from an Aluminum Melting Furnace (Source: ORNL) PDF Image | Waste Heat to Energy Tech Opportunities in US Industry
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