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sources. As per an article published in Distributed Energy, ORCs are most useful for waste heat recovery among these three applications.24 Waste heat recovery can be applied to a variety of low to medium temperature heat streams. An example of a recent successful installation is in Bavaria, Germany, where a cement plant installed an ORC to recover waste heat from its clinker cooler, whose exhaust gas is at about 930oF [500°C]. The ORC provided 12% of the plant’s electricity requirements and reduced CO2 emissions by approximately 7,000 tons.25 Although the economics of ORC heat recovery need to be carefully analyzed for any given application, it will be a particularly useful option in industries that have no in house use for additional process heat or no neighboring plants that could make economic use of the heat. 3.4.1.3 Kalina Cycle The Kalina cycle is a variation of the Rankine cycle, using a mixture of ammonia and water as the working fluid. A key difference between single fluid cycles and cycles that use binary fluids is the temperature profile during boiling and condensation. For singlefluid cycles (e.g., steam or organic Rankine), the temperature remains constant during boiling. As heat is transferred to the working medium (e.g., water), the water temperature slowly increases to boiling temperature, at which point the temperature remains constant until all the water has evaporated. In contrast, a binary mixture of water and ammonia (each of which has a different boiling point) will increase its temperature during evaporation. This allows better thermal matching with the waste heat source and with the cooling medium in the condenser. Consequently, these systems achieve significantly greater energy efficiency. Figure 19 – Kalina Cycle Installation The cycle was invented in the 1980s and the first power plant based on the Kalina cycle was constructed in Canoga Park, California in 1991. It has been installed in several other locations for power generation from geothermal energy or waste heat. Applications include a 6 million metric tons per year steelworks in Japan (1999),26 heat recovery from a municipal solid waste incinerator (1999), and from a hydrocarbon process tower (2003).27 The steelworks application involved using a Kalina cycle to generate power from cooling water at 208°F [98°C]. With a water flow rate of 1,300 metric tons per hour, the electric power output was about 4,500 kW. The total investment cost was about $4 million or about $1,100/kW.28 3.4.2 Direct Electrical Conversion Devices Whereas traditional power cycles involve using heat to create mechanical energy and ultimately electrical energy, new technologies are being developed that can generate electricity directly from heat. These include thermoelectric, thermionic, and piezoelectric devices. There is no evidence that these systems have been tested in industrial waste heat recovery applications, although a few have undergone some prototype testing in applications such as heat recovery in automotive vehicles. 3.4.2.1 Thermoelectric Generation Thermoelectric (TE) materials are semiconductor solids that allow direct generation of electricity when subject to a temperature differential. These systems are based on a phenomenon known as the Seebeck effect: when two different semiconductor materials are subject to a heat source and heat sink, a voltage is created between the two semiconductors. Conversely, TE materials can also be used for cooling or heating by applying electricity to dissimilar semiconductors. Thermoelectric technology has existed for a 27 PDF Image | Waste Heat to Energy Tech Opportunities in US Industry
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