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long time (the thermoelectric effect was first discovered in 1821), but has seen limited use due to low efficiencies and high cost. Most TE generation systems in use have efficiencies of 2 to 5%; these have mainly been used to power instruments on spacecraft or in very remote locations. However, recent advances in nanotechnology have enabled advanced TE materials that might achieve conversion efficiencies 15% or greater. A recent study by PNNL and BCS, Incorporated examines the opportunity for TE generation in various industrial waste heat streams and identifies performance requirement and RD&D needs.29 The study concluded that advanced TE packages would be appropriate in medium to hightemperature, high flowrate exhaust streams where facilities have little use for recovered waste heat. Two example opportunities are glass furnaces and molten metal furnaces. Before TE materials can be used in these applications, advances are needed in both TE production technology and in heat transfer systems. Competing with current electricity costs will mandate a TE package cost of about $5/watt instead of the current $30/watt.30 Lowcost, highvolume production methods for TE materials must be developed in order to achieve this goal. Meanwhile, maintaining a high temperature differential across thin TE devices will present a significant engineering challenge. Obtaining high heat transfer rates will require advances in heat transfer materials and heat exchange systems with high heat transfer coefficients. 3.4.2.2 Piezoelectric Power Generation Piezoelectric Power Generation (PEPG) is an option for converting lowtemperature waste heat (200 300oF or [100150°C]) to electrical energy.31 Piezoelectric devices convert mechanical energy in the form of ambient vibrations to electrical energy. A piezoelectric thinfilm membrane can take advantage of oscillatory gas expansion to create a voltage output. A recent study32 identified several technical challenges associated with PEPG technologies: • low efficiency: PEPG technology is only about 1% efficient; difficulties remain in obtaining high enough oscillatory frequencies; current devices operate at around 100 Hz, and frequencies closer to 1,000 Hz are needed, • high internal impedance, • complex oscillatory fluid dynamics within the liquid/vapor chamber, • need for long term reliability and durability, and • high costs ($10,000/W). While the conversion efficiency of PEPG technology is currently very low (1%), there may be opportunities to use PEPG cascading, in which case efficiencies could reach about 10%.33 Other key issues are the costs of manufacturing piezoelectric devices, as well as the design of heat exchangers to facilitate sufficient heat transfer rates across a relatively low temperature difference.34 3.4.2.3 Thermionic Generation Thermionic devices operate similar to thermoelectric devices; however, whereas thermoelectric devices operate according to the Seebeck effect, thermionic devices operate via thermionic emission. In these systems, a temperature difference drives the flow of electrons through a vacuum from a metal to a metal oxide surface. One key disadvantage of these systems is that they are limited to applications with high 28 Figure 20 Thermoelectric Generation Unit PDF Image | Waste Heat to Energy Tech Opportunities in US Industry
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