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regenerative furnaces total about 15 TBtu/yr, losses from recuperative melters total about 7 TBtu/yr, from electric boost melters 9 TBtu/yr, and from oxyfuel furnaces 3 TBtu/yr. Table 10 Unrecovered Waste Heat and Work Potential from Exhaust Gases in Glass Melting Energy Consumption Assumed Average Exhaust Temperature Waste Heat 77°F/25°C Ref Waste Heat 300°F/150°C Ref Carnot Efficiency Source TBtu/yr °F °C TBtu/yr TBtu/yr TBtu/yr Regenerative Recuperative OxyFuel Electric Boost Direct Melter Note: Sources and assumptions in Appendix A: Documentation of Waste Heat Estimates 54.4 800 427 15.1 13.6 1,800 982 7.6 12.8 2,600 1,427 4.2 34.9 800 427 8.6 6.5 0.6 8.7 5.4 0.8 5.8 2.7 0.8 3.4 3.7 0.6 4.9 10.1 2,400 1,316 7.5 5.8 0.8 6.1 Total 125.8 43.0 24.1 28.9 4.2 Cement Manufacturing The cement industry consumes about 550 TBtu/yr45 to produce about annually.46 The major process steps include mining and quarrying raw materials (mainly limestone and chalk), crushing and grinding materials in preparation for the kiln, clinker production (pyroprocessing), and cement milling. Clinker is the solid nodular material exiting kilns and used for production of cement. Clinker production in kilns is by far the most energyintensive process in the cement industry, responsible for about 90% of delivered energy consumption and 74% of total energy consumption (when electricityrelated losses are included). Rotary cement kilns are long refractorylined steel tubes with lengths varying from 200 to 1,000 feet.47 The fuel most commonly used is coal, though some kilns use natural gas, oil, and various waste fuels. Raw meal (limestone and other materials) enter at the top of the kiln and gradually passes through increasingly hot zones toward the flame at the bottom of the kiln. Rotary kilns can be divided into two main groups: wet process and dry process. In a wet kiln, the raw meal has a moisture content of 30 40%,48 requiring larger energy expenditures for evaporating the water. These kilns are no longer being constructed and comprise only 20% of U.S. clinker production capacity. Dry process kilns use dry powder meal. The kiln typically has a “chain section” which absorbs heat from the exhaust gases and enhances heat transfer to the meal. Exhaust temperatures without heat recovery are about 840°F [450°C].49 Options for heat recovery from stack exhausts include preheating meal and power generation. Preheating is accomplished through countercurrent flow of raw materials and exhaust gases in cyclones as shown in Figure 21. The most common systems are series fourstage preheaters, which have exhaust gases leaving at approximately 640°F [340°C].50 Exhaust gases are in the mediumtemperature range, where there are still opportunities for waste heat recovery. Additional stages of preheaters can further lower temperatures. If 56 stages are used, exhaust temperatures can be reduced to 400 to 570°F [204300°C].51 The number of preheat stages is often limited 35 110 million tons of cement Figure 21 Cement Kiln Preheater Work PotentialPDF Image | Waste Heat to Energy Tech Opportunities in US Industry
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