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produced as electrical power. This efficiency is determined by the thermo- dynamics of the conversion process--in particular, by the temperature of the heat sink, which is controlled by the choice of the waste heat dis- posal system. Waste heat may be transferred directly into an adjacent water body such as a large lake, river, estuary or coastal water by means of once-through cooling systems. In any event the ultimate sink for the heat is outer space via the earth's atmosphere. Closed cycle systems, such as cooling towers, result in heat sink temperatures that are higher than once-through systems. The consequence is a reduction in generating efficiency. These energy losses, when coupled with safety constraints related to cooling water temperature, are highly dynamic in nature because of large daily variations in meteorological conditions controlling the rate of heat dissipation. Furthermore, the total energy requirements of cooling systems must be considered. Closed-cycle systems represent large capital and resource investments and in the case of forced-draft towers utilize significant amounts of energy in their operation. Waste heat, whether discharged into water or air, has effects on the environment. Yet the understanding of these effects, in many instances, is qualitative, subjective and fragmentary. Temperature has a profound effect on all forms of life and governs the rate and mode of all bio- chemical reactions. There have been a large number of studies on the biological level, such as the tolerance and behavior of certain species of fish under heat influence. At the ecological level, which must account for the interrelationships between species and the environment, only limited information is available. Studies necessary for the systematic assessment of waste heat effects are difficult to perform for a number of 5PDF Image | WASTE HEAT MANAGEMENT IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY
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