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9.4 World Energy Resources: Geothermal World Energy Council 2013 These hot rocks have few pores or fractures, and therefore, contain little water and little or no interconnected permeability. To extract the heat, new experimental technologies are being tested, including hydraulic fracturing under pressure, followed by cold water circulating down one well and producing hot water from a second well in a closed system. Exploitable geothermal systems can be found in a number of geological environments. They can be broadly divided into two groups depending on whether they are related to young volcanoes and magmatic activity. High-temperature fields used for conventional power production are mostly confined to the former group, but geothermal fields utilised for direct application of the thermal energy can be found in both groups. The temperature of the geo- thermal reservoirs varies from place to place depending on the geological conditions: High-temperature fields (>180°C) are the fields where volcanic activity takes place mainly along so-called plate boundaries (Fig. 9.2). According to the plate tectonics theory, the Earth’s crust is divided into a few large and rigid plates which float on the mantle and move relative to each other at average rates counted in centimetres per year (the actual move- ments are highly erratic). The plate boundaries are characterised by intense faulting and seismic and in many cases volcanic activity. Geothermal fields are very common on plate boundaries, as the crust is highly fractured and thus permeable to water, and other sources of heat. In such areas magmatic intrusions, sometimes with partly molten rock at tempera- tures above 1 000°C, situated at a few kilometres below the surface, heat the groundwater. The hot water has lower density than the surrounding cold groundwater and therefore it flows up towards the surface along fractures and other permeable structures; Most of the plate boundaries are below sea level, but in cases where the volcanic activity has been intensive enough to build islands or where active plate boundaries transect conti- nents, high-temperature geothermal fields are scattered along the boundaries. A spectacular example of this is the ‘ring of fire’ that surrounds the Pacific Ocean (the Pacific Plate) with intense volcanism and geothermal activity. Other examples are Iceland, which is located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge plate boundary, the East African Rift Valley and ‘hot spots’ such as Hawaii and Yellowstone. Figure 9.2 World map showing the lithospheric plate boundaries, dots = active volcanoes Source: U.S. Geological SurveyPDF Image | World Energy Council 2013 World Energy Resources Geothermal
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