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World Energy Council 2013 World Energy Resources: Geothermal Low-temperature fields (< 180°C) – geothermal resources unrelated to volcanoes can be divided into four types: a. resources related to deep circulation of meteoric water along faults and fractures; b. resources in deep high-permeability rocks at hydrostatic pressure; c. resources in high-porosity rocks at pressures greatly in excess of hydrostatic (i.e. ‘geopressured’); d. resources in hot but dry (low-porosity) rock formations. All these, with the exception of type c), can also be associated with volcanic activity. Types c) and d) are not commercially exploited as yet. Type a) is probably the most common for warm springs in the world. These can occur in most rock types of all ages, but are most frequent in mountainous regions where warm springs appear along faults in valleys. Warm springs of this type are of course more numer- ous in areas with a high regional conductive heat flow (with or without volcanic activity), but are also found in areas of normal and low heat flow. The important factor here is a path for the meteoric water to circulate deep into the ground and up again. Areas of young tectonic activity are commonly rich in this type. Type b) is probably the most important type of geothermal resources not associated with young volcanic activity. Many regions throughout the world are characterised by deep basins filled with sedimentary rocks of high porosity and permeability. If these are properly isolated from surface ground water by impermeable strata, the water in the sediments is heated by the regional heat flow. The age of the sediments makes no difference, so long as they are permeable. The geothermal reservoirs in the sedimentary basins can be very extensive, as the basins themselves are commonly hundreds of kilometres in diameter. The temperature of the thermal water depends on the depth of the individual aquifers and the geothermal gradi- ent in the area concerned, but is commonly in the range of 50–100°C (in wells less than 3 km deep) in areas that have been exploited. Geothermal resources of this type are rarely seen on the surface, but are commonly detected during deep drilling for oil and gas. Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) – the principle of EGS is simple: in the deep sub- surface where temperatures are high enough for power generation (150–200°C) an extended fracture network is created and/or enlarged to act as new paths. Water from the deep wells and/or cold water from the surface is transported through this deep reservoir using injection and production wells, and recovered as steam/hot water. Injection and production wells as well as further surface installations complete the circulation system. The extracted heat can be used for district heating and/or for power generation. A number of basic problems need to be solved for successful deployment of EGS systems, mainly that techniques need to be developed for creating, profiling, and operating the deep fracture system (by some means of remote sensing and control) that can be tailored to site-specific subsurface conditions. Some environmental issues, such as the chance of trig- gering seismicity and the availability of surface water, also need detailed investigation. There are several projects where targeted EGS demonstration is under way. New developments: drilling for higher temperatures – production wells in high-tempera- ture fields are commonly 1.5–2.5 km deep and the production temperature 250–340°C. The energy output from individual wells is highly variable, depending on the flow rate and the enthalpy (heat content) of the fluid, but is commonly in the range of 5–10 MWe and rarely over 15 MWe per well. It is well known from research on eroded high-temperature fields that much higher temperatures are found in the roots of the high-temperature systems. The 9.5PDF Image | World Energy Council 2013 World Energy Resources Geothermal
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