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9.6 World Energy Resources: Geothermal World Energy Council 2013 international Iceland Deep Drilling Project (IDDP) is a long-term programme to improve the efficiency and economics of geothermal energy by harnessing deep unconventional geo- thermal resources (Fridleifsson et al., 2007). Its aim is to produce electricity from natural supercritical hydrous fluids from drillable depths. Producing supercritical fluids will require drilling wells and sampling fluids and rocks to depths of 3.5–5 km, and at temperatures of 450–600°C. Geothermal Utilisation and Characteristics Electric Power Generation Geothermal power is generated by using steam or a hydrocarbon vapour to turn a tur- bine-generator set to produce electricity. A vapour-dominated (dry steam) resource can be used directly, whereas a hot-water resource needs to be flashed by reducing the pres- sure to produce steam, normally in the 15–20% range. Some plants use double and triple flash to improve the efficiency, however in the case of triple flash it may be more efficient to use a bottoming cycle (a small binary plant using the waste water from the main plant). Low-temperature resources generally require the use of a secondary low boiling-point fluid (hydrocarbon) to generate the vapour, in a binary or Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) plant. Usually a wet or dry cooling tower is used to condense the vapour after it leaves the turbine to maximise the temperature and pressure drop between the incoming and outgoing vapour and thus increase the efficiency of the operation. However, dry cooling is often used in arid areas. Binary plant technology is playing a very important role in the modern geothermal electric- ity market. The economics of electricity production are influenced by the drilling costs and resource development (a typical capital expenditure or Capex quota is 30% for reservoir and 70% plant). The electricity productivity per well is a function of reservoir fluid thermodynamic characteristics (phase and temperature).The higher the energy content of the reservoir fluid, the lesser the number of required wells and as a consequence the reservoir Capex quota is reduced. Single geothermal wells can produce from 1–5 MWe, however, some producing as high as 30 MWe have been reported. Binary plants on the reinjection stream could be a very effective way of producing cheap energy, because there would not be any additional pump- ing costs. Direct Utilisation The main advantage of using geothermal energy for direct use projects in the low- to inter- mediate-temperature range is that such resources are more widespread and exist in at least 80 countries at economic drilling depths. In addition, there are no conversion efficiency losses and projects can use conventional water-well drilling and off-the-shelf heating and cooling equipment (allowing for the temperature and chemistry of the fluid). Most projects can be on line in less than a year. Projects can be on a small scale, such as for an individual home, greenhouse or aquaculture pond, but can also be a large-scale commercial operation such as for district heating/cooling, or food and lumber drying. It is often necessary to isolate the geothermal fluid from the user side to prevent corrosion and scaling. Care must be taken to prevent oxygen from entering the system (geothermal water is normally oxygen-free), and dissolved gases and minerals such as boron and arsenic must be removed or isolated, as they are harmful to plants and animals. Hydrogen sulphide, even in low concentrations, will cause problems with copper and solder and is harmful to humans. On the other hand carbon dioxide, which often occurs in geothermal water, can be extracted and used for carbonated beverages or to enhance growth in greenhouses. ThePDF Image | World Energy Council 2013 World Energy Resources Geothermal
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