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Ground and water source heat pumps have been widely adopted throughout Australia for air conditioning with at least 2000 installations in place and an estimated market expansion by more than 50% per annum including systems for heating commercial quantities of hot water and systems to dry fruits and vegetables. Several large systems are mentioned in Burns et al. (2000) but unfortunately no quantitative information is available. Research on raising the COP for heat pumps is underway at Melbourne and the Australian National Universities in collaboration with the Advanced Engineering Center for Manufacturing, by using paraffin wax as a phase change material on either side of the pump within the geothermal system. New Zealand: Since the last update in Thain and Freeston (1995) there have been only minor changes in the New Zealand direct-use scene. The major direct user continues to be the Tasman Pulp and Paper Mill operation at Kawerau. With an installed capacity of 210 MWt and an annual energy use of 5,500 TJ/yr, (Thain and Dunstall, 2000) uses geothermal fluids to generate clean process steam for paper drying, a source of heat in evaporators, timber drying and electricity generation. Geothermal condensate previously discharged to the Tawarewa river is now collected, cleaned and used in power and liquor recovery boilers. Also on site is a timber drying plant and a green house of 5,250 m2. Taupo Lucerne plant which used steam initially, has been converted to using reinjection hot water from the Ohaaki electric power system. The Wairakei prawn farm was also discussed in the 1995 paper but has since been converted for heating its 5.8 hectares of ponds with 1300C hot water from the Wairakei reinjection system. This farm has a capacity of 18.6 MWt and an annual utilization of 363 TJ/yr. Other uses of geothermal fluids are scattered about the central North Island but industrial use of geothermal heat is not extensive. The largest concentration of small direct heat users is in Rotorua where there is a long history of use. A management plan for the resource has been put in place which has proved to be a success. The bore users have some 150 small wells representing a capacity of >22 MWt and an annual utilization of 694 TJ/yr. ENERGY SAVINGS Using geothermal energy, obviously replaces the use of other forms of energy, especially fossil fuels. The benefits thus accrued are for many countries, less dependence on imported fuels, and for all, elimination of pollutants such as particulates and greenhouses gases. An attempt is made here to quantify these savings of fossil fuels using a 0.35 efficiency factor if the competing energy is used to produce electricity, and 0.70 if it is used directly to produce heat such as in a furnace. Using the 162,009 TJ/yr of energy produced, estimating that a barrel of fuel oil contains 6.06 x 109 J, and that the fuel is used to produce replacement electricity, the savings would be 76.4 million barrels of oil or 11.4 million tonnes of oil annually. If the oil were used directly to produce energy by burning, then these values would be reduced by half. The actual saving is most likely somewhere in between these two values. Using figures developed by Lawrence Livermore Laboratories for the U.S. Department of Energy, the following carbon savings Lund and Freeston would be realized. If electricity were produced, then the carbon saving would by 14.65 tonnes/TJ from natural gas, 62.6 tonnes/TJ from oil or 72.7 tonnes/TJ from coal. This then produces a savings in carbon production of 2.37 million tonnes, 10.14 million tonnes or 11.78 million tonnes respectively. If the energy were produced by burning these fuels, the carbon saving would be half these values. Again the actual saving would be somewhere in between these sets of values and would include a mix of fossil fuels. CONCLUDING REMARKS As in 1995, some countries stand out as major users of geothermal fluids for direct-use, and in most countries the development has been slow. This is not surprising since the price of oil and natural gas during the past five years has been a major competitor to development of geothermal projects. However, many countries have been doing the necessary ground work by conducting an inventory and quantifying their resources in preparation for development when fossil fuel prices increase. We are also seeing many newcomers to the geothermal direct- use club - which we welcome - and hope to see more in the future. At the writing of these report, we are already seeing the cost of crude oil triple over the past year. In addition, the downturn in the economy of newly independent countries and in SE Asia have also stymied development in both the electric generation and direct-use fields. An important task for all of us, is to get the word out about the uses of geothermal energy and its many environmental benefits. The country update reports used in this summary often had key data and explanation lacking, even though it was requested. In other cases, the data appeared to be in error or misreported. The authors hope to clarify these discrepancies at the World Geothermal Congress in Japan and then issue a final report later in the year, to be published in Geothermics Journal. We do not expect to see any set of numbers change significantly. Even with these discrepancies, which we tried to correct in part, the preparation of this report has been useful if only to demonstrate that the use of low- to moderate-temperature geothermal resources for direct-use, given the right environment, is viable and economic. As oil and gas supplies dwindle and increase in price, the use of geothermal energy will become an even more economic viable alternative source of energy. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wish to thank the U.S. Department of Energy for providing support to prepare this report. We would also like to thank Tonya L. Boyd and Donna Gibson of the Geo-Heat Center staff for assisting in the preparation of the final document. We gratefully acknowledge those authors that submitted country update reports and completed the tables. This paper would not have been possible without their cooperation. REFERENCES Adajar, J.C., (1999). Manito Livelihood project. Proceedings of the Workshop - International Geothermal Days - Oregon 1999, Geo-Heat Center, Klamath Falls, OR, pp. 147-152. 17PDF Image | WORLD-WIDE DIRECT USES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
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