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250°C to tens of years at 100°C (Barton, 1984). As the geothermal water cools on its way to the surface, the reaction rates become more sluggish. A secondary assumption is that the flow of hydrothermal water to the surface is rapid with respect to the rates of reactions at near-surface temperatures. Geothermometer-based temperature estimates in the new geothermal resource assessment rely primarily on silica and cation geothermometers. In natural environments, it is often difficult to choose the correct silica geothermometer because it is not clear which mineral is controlling the dissolved silica concentration. Below 180°C, there is a choice between geothermometers for chalcedony and quartz, since each of these minerals may control the dissolved silica in different rock environments. Giggenbach (1992) developed an equation to approximate the calculated temperature in the transition zone between the chalcedony solubility control at low temperatures and the quartz solubility control at high temperatures (fig. 3). This smoothed curve eliminates the ambiguity of the calculations between 20°C and 210°C. Above 210°C, the quartz geothermometer is representative of the silica solubility in geothermal systems up to about 250°C. Temperatures for waters with dissolved silica concentrations of more than 462 mg/L (250°C) and for silica concentrations in condensed steam are estimated by comparing the analyzed silica concentrations with the quartz solubility determinations in Fournier and Potter (1982). Silica geothermometers rely on the fact that each of the silica (SiO2) minerals has its own solubility in water as a function of temperature and pressure, and silica hydrolizes in water to form the neutral silicic acid complex, H4SiO4°. The silica minerals precipitate from the aqueous solution by the reverse reaction when the silicic acid complex becomes supersaturated, polymerizes, and precipitates as a solid. The rates of dissolution and precipitation are relatively rapid at high temperatures and are rather sluggish at low temperatures. The individual silica mineral that precipitates depends on the temperature and pressure conditions and on the degree of supersaturation. Fournier (1992) warns that the geothermometers are changed significantly by high concentrations of ions in solution, especially at high temperature (over 300°C). The equations for silica geothermometers work best at pH values between 5 and 7 (Fournier, 1992). In acidic solutions (less than pH = 3) or in alkaline solutions (greater than pH = 8) part of the silicic acid complex ionizes and the precipitation reaction is changed (Busey and Mesmer, 1977). Silica mineral saturation temperatures for high-pH waters are determined using SOLMINEQ88, a solution-mineral equilibrium computer model (Kharaka, 1988). There are few systems encountered with low pH, and the corrections are not considered here. The cation geothermometers use ratios of cation concentrations to represent the hydrothermal, steady-state reactions that take place within mineral groups such as the feldspars, micas, zeolites, or clays. The use of concentration ratios rather than the actual concentrations makes these geothermometers less sensitive to changes in strength of the solution due either to boiling or to dilution. The cation geothermometers normally use sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and lithium in various relationships that are 7PDF Image | Assessment of Identified Geothermal Resources
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