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3 Figure 1-3: Global comparison of passenger vehicle GHG emission standardsnormalised to NEDC gCO2/km[7]. Fuel energy is lost as heat through exhaust gases, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and charge air cooler (CAC) systems. The exhaust gases of ICEs contain the largest portion of wasted heat, which is approximately20%–42% of the total wasted heat [8]. Most modern diesel engines recirculate exhaust gases. Recirculating exhaust gases back to the combustion chamber is beneficial as it helpsat reducing NOx emissions. EGR contributes to 15%– 20% of wasted fuel energy [9]. Finally, most modern diesel engines are equipped with turbochargers to increase the efficiency of the ICE. However, the implementation of turbochargers results in high air temperature at the intake manifold. Therefore, CAC is implemented to reduce the air temperature and maintain the high air density. CAC contributes to 10% of the wasted fuel energy [10]. Among heat loss sources, exhaust gases are considered the most beneficialdue to their high temperature levels. Vazquez et al.[11] stated that converting just 10% of the wasted heat could result in a 20% increase in fuel efficiency. Therefore, efficient technologies should be developed to save fuel and reduce exhaust emissions, which eventually lead to high engine efficiency. Three main technologies are currently investigated as Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) technologies, namely,ORC, turbo-compounding (TC) and thermo-electric generation (TEG). Although ORC is briefly discussedin the next section, Chapter 2 presents such technology in detail. 1.1.2 Organic Rankine CyclePDF Image | Automotive Radial Turbine Expander Design WHR
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