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Table 1 Summary of the specifications of the main ORC unit components. In the heat source circuit, the temperature of the oil is measured at the inlet and outlet of the evaporator using type-K thermocou- ples and a high temperature volume flow meter is used to measure the oil flow rate. The turbine electrical power is measured by means of a 3- phases wattmeter. The characteristics of the measurement devices are reported in Table 2. 2.4. Working fluid selection Different studies focus on the characteristics required by the fluid in order to retrieve the highest efficiency or power out of the given thermal energy source [8,13]. For low quality waste heat recovery, the choice of the working fluid is often restricted to the refrigerant fluid family because of their low critical temperatures and pressures. However, the availability on trucks of high temper- ature heat sources such as the recirculated gases (EGR) could also lead to the use of ethanol or water as working fluid. In the present study, the turbine was designed to operate with R245fa. This fluid is not toxic and not flammable. It is easily avail- able on the market and has null Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP). However it is also characterized by a medium Global Warming Potential (GWP = 1030) and should therefore gradually be removed from the market. Therefore, in addition to an experimental cam- paign with R245fa, another campaign is then realized with a prob- able replacement for R245fa: R1233zd (GWP = 6). 2.5. Experimental investigation Sixty-six, thirty-three with each fluid, of the performed mea- surement points are used for the comparisons of the two fluids. These points are obtained by keeping the system at a stable condi- tion for a minimum of 15 min and by averaging the measurements over a period of 2 min. The condenser pressure is varied between 2.5 and 4.5 bar absolute for R245fa and between 3 and 4 bar abso- lute for R1233zd, by step of 0.5 bar, modifying the mass flow rate of the cooling water. The turbine mass flow rate is regulated between 0.15 and 0.35 kg/s by varying the pump rotational speed. For given heat source temperature and mass flow rate, the evapo- rating pressure is then imposed by the turbine. The rotational speed of the turbine is varied (from 50,000 to 70,000 rpm), as well as the bearings lubrication flow rate (from 0.04 to 0.1 kg/s) which is responsible of internal losses in the bearings. Given the same heat source and sink conditions (in terms of temperatures at the inlet of the heat exchangers and of mass flow rates), a first comparison is performed operating the two fluids at the same evaporating and condensing temperatures. This enables an objective comparison of the two fluids used in a single system when the evaporating and condensing temperature are limiting the maximum performance of the system because of the heat source and heat sink conditions. Twenty experimental points are used for this comparison, ten with each fluid. A second method consists in comparing the performance of the system for same condensing temperature levels and same evaporating pressure levels. This enables a comparison adapted to the WHR on truck application where the goal is generally to minimize the condensing pressure, but keeping it above the atmospheric pressure to avoid air infiltration. On the other hand, if the evaporating temperature is not limited by the heat source conditions, which is often the case because of the high temperature of the exhaust gases compared to the critical pres- sure of the organic fluids, the evaporating pressure can then be optimized to maximize the ORC system performance. Twenty- two experimental points are studied for this comparison, eleven with each fluid. System component Heat exchangers Pump Expansion machine Liquid receiver Specifications Brazed plate type Tmax1⁄4180C,Pmax1⁄430bar Volumetric Membrane pump 3 kW motor, Nnom 1⁄4 1500 rpm, Pmax = 70 bar Radial turbine 3.5 kW generator, M_ = 0–350 g/s, rp = 2–5 [–], N = 50,000–80,000 rpm M_ lub = 0.04–0.1 [kg/s] 8l L. Guillaume et al. / Applied Energy xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 5 The three aforementioned flows are combined afterward before entering the condenser where the fluid goes back to saturate liquid state based on the heat exchange with the cooling water. The saturated liquid finally fills the liquid receiver, in which the accumulated mass of liquid enables to dump the transient varia- tions occurring during the operation of the system, before being further cooled down in the subcooler. This ensure the fluid is in a low temperature liquid state at the inlet of the pump and thus avoid cavitation. 2.2. Heating and cooling loops The low-capacity waste heat thermal energy source is repre- sented by means of an electrical boiler where thermal oil, Pirobloc HTF-Basic, is pumped through to temperatures of up to 300 C. The boiler has a maximum power of 150 kWth. A proportional integral (PI) controller is implemented to maintain the temperature of the oil at the inlet of the evaporator constant during transient in the ORC test rig (e.g. change in the pump rotational speed of the ORC). The oil mass flow rate provided by the boiler being too large for the ORC application, it is manually controlled through a by-pass loop by means of needle valves located at the inlet of the evaporator. A variable flow rate of water is used as heat sink to cool down the working fluid in the condenser (and the subcooler). 2.3. Data acquisition systems On the working fluid side, absolute pressure sensors (APS) and Type-T thermocouples at the inlet and outlet of the different com- ponents allow for the determination of the energy balance for each component and the management of the plant. The working fluid mass flow rates are measured by means of three Coriolis flow meters (CFM) installed in parallel at the pump outlet. The condenser cooling loop is equipped with two type-T ther- mocouples to measure the temperature of the cooling fluid at the inlet and outlet of the water side and a water counter is used to measure the flow rate of water. Table 2 Range and precision of the measurement devices. Variable Mass flow T (ORC) T (heat sink) T (heat source) p El. Power Device type CFM type-T thermocouples type-T thermocouples type-K thermocouples APS Wattmeter Range 0–0.5 kg/s 0–150 C 0–15 C 0–180 C 0–30 bar 0–10 kW Uncertainty ±0.1% ±0.5 K ±0.5 K ±1.5 K ±0.03 bar ±0.1% Please cite this article in press as: Guillaume L et al. Performance of a radial-inflow turbine integrated in an ORC system and designed for a WHR on truck application: An experimental comparison between R245fa and R1233zd. Appl Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.03.012PDF Image | WHR on truck ORC radial inflow turbine integrated
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