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reactions, difficulties preventing dendrite formation without severely limiting operating current densities [155,156]. 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Figure IV-1 – Vanadium pentoxide (left y-axis) and corresponding VRFB electrolyte (right y- axis) prices in Europe from 1980 through 2021. Prices for ferrovanadium during this period follow nearly identical trends [34]. With growing demand for stationary energy storage, VRFBs may play an important role in near- term decarbonization efforts, making it important to consider the factors that impact their scalability. Currently, the price of vanadium (both in magnitude and stability) presents significant concerns regarding the deployment potential of VRFBs. To this end, we explore the materials availability and supply chain to understand the causes of the high and volatile vanadium price. Supply chain studies have provided useful, research-driving insights for related technologies such as LIBs (e.g., concerns with the cobalt supply chain [41] have motivated research into alternative chemistries that minimize or avoid its use [42]). Such analyses have been lacking in the RFB field; while some recent studies have started to illuminate the vanadium supply chain, these have generally focused on the environmental, health, and safety considerations of vanadium production and VRFB operation [43–48]. Here, we focus on the production scale and growth rates needed to deploy sizable amounts of VRFB storage and examine opportunities to more rapidly expand and stabilize the vanadium supply chain via the development of various supply streams and 65 Corresponding electrolyte price [$/kWh] Vanadium pentoxide (V 2O5) flake (98%) price, Europe [USD/kg]PDF Image | Bringing Redox Flow Batteries to the Grid
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