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demand, cobalt still is mostly produced as a co- and by-product of copper and nickel, respectively [41]. Similarly, indium production has experienced a CAGR of ~10% since the 1970’s due to its use in semiconductors that underpin photovoltaic devices and electronic displays [70]. Indium is also produced predominantly as a co-/by-product of zinc. While co-/by-product production generally decouples its supply and demand, supply can still be driven by demand for some limited period of time: for example, Frenzel et al. showed how indium production has grown ~10× faster than production of its host material, zinc [76]. Such a phenomenon often results from increased demand for the material of interest (in this case, indium) that facilitates higher utilization and recovery rates of it from the host material (i.e., a higher percentage of the total amount of extractable co-/by-product is actually recovered from the host material than before, bolstering its production rate). Gao et al. reports that vanadium recovery from duplex steel slag is generally only ~50% (~80% recovery in each of three steps: reductive smelting, selective oxidation, and vanadium extraction), suggesting that it may be possible to increase vanadium recovery in existing production methods through process optimization [48]. However, there are other notable complications hindering the expansion and stability of these operations. Expansion of co-/by-product production via duplex steel-making processes is perhaps the least promising avenue of supply chain growth due to their unfavorable economics. The duplex process is not the most efficient steel-making method, as it requires a multi-step oxidation of the steel to recover vanadium, thus necessitating additional capital and operating expenses while introducing more inefficiencies as compared to single-step processes [77]. Additionally, the iron content of vanadium-bearing titaniferous magnetite (VTM) ores – used for duplex steel-making as they enable vanadium recovery – is low, making VTM-based steel more expensive to produce [48]. While duplex mills may benefit financially from vanadium co-/by-product production, the primary driving force that will keep them operating is revenue from steel. Thus, duplex mills may have an inherent competitive disadvantage and single-step processes may ultimately displace these legacy technologies. These considerations have probably contributed to the low number of duplex facilities at present, could cause the closure of existing facilities (e.g., Highveld Steel and Vanadium, discussed earlier), and may deter the formation of new duplex operations in the future. Contrary to these points, sustained growth of global vanadium production by ~20% in both 2019 and 2020 was primarily due to expansion of co-/by-product vanadium from steel-making in China 77PDF Image | Bringing Redox Flow Batteries to the Grid
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