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[73]. However, diversification of the supply chain is as important as sheer growth, so we turn our attention to other potential supply streams for the remainder of this discussion. There are promising opportunities to expand and diversify supply via the development of alternate methods for recovering vanadium as co-/by-products of other materials. First, other potential routes for vanadium production could lie in non-duplex steel-making processes, necessitating further research efforts into this space. As discussed previously, many steel mines produce vanadium-calcium residuals that are currently unutilized due to the economic infeasibility of recovering their vanadium, though there are efforts to develop and scale-up vanadium extraction from such precursors: Neometals, an Australian company, claims to have developed a hydrometallurgical process to recover vanadium from these mono-process slags. The company recently partnered with Scandinavian mineral development company Critical Metals Ltd, which has executed a 10-year supply agreement with Swedish steel giant SSAB to access approximately 2 Mt of stockpiled high-grade vanadium-bearing slag from three operating steel mills [78]. While details on the Neometals process are not public, significant project challenges are anticipated including potentially prohibitive capital cost requirements (presuming the need for on-site smelters), as well as technical challenges in the vanadium recovery itself. Another potentially sizable input stream could come from recycling of existing products: steel is already one of the most recycled materials, meaning vanadium is already recycled to an extent [45], but vanadium extraction and recovery from steel for other uses is, at present, economically infeasible due to its dilute nature in these products [79]. Gao et al. also note that the low concentration of vanadium in most minerals may limit primary production opportunities for the foreseeable future, and expanding the co-/by-production of vanadium with other valuable metals beyond iron for steel (e.g., chromium, titanium, or manganese) may be necessary for rapid growth [48]. While co-/by- product production presents inherent challenges, diversification and expansion of the operations contributing to this stream would at least reduce the most imminent supply concentration problems. Perhaps the most promising avenue for near-term growth and diversification of the supply chain is through secondary-source vanadium. These precursors are attractive due to their higher vanadium content (3 5% V2O5) that makes vanadium extraction more economical [58,59]. Conversations with industry experts revealed that while the precursor materials are generally 78PDF Image | Bringing Redox Flow Batteries to the Grid
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