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1 Introduction Chemical Energy Storage Technologies Lithium-ion Batteries Conventional rechargeable lithium-ion batteries; found in cell phones, laptops and increasingly vehicles, provide a simple and efficient way to store electricity [10]. Recently large scale lithium-ion batteries have been deployed around the world, in particular where improved grid reliability is required, such as South Australia, South Korea and California [11]. These batteries have higher energy density than any other form of energy storage mentioned in this work, except for hydrogen. Higher energy density is desirable for portable applications, but for grid storage size is typically not a constraint, thus reducing the comparative advantage usually provided by this characteristic. Lead Acid Batteries Lead acid batteries are the most common batteries in the world, primarily used as starter batteries for internal combustion engine vehicles [4], due the low upfront cost of $175–250 per kWh. When used as an energy storage option to improve reliability, this upfront cost advantage is eroded due to the relatively short lifetime of 500-800 charge / discharge cycles [12]. Redox Flow Batteries Flow batteries have been identified as promising technologies for providing large scale energy storage to support the increase of renewable electricity generation on the grid or through the development of micro-grids [13-15]. Many different variants of redox flow batteries exist, in particular all-vanadium, zinc-bromide, iron-vanadium and organic molecule based systems [16]. Each variant has underlying characteristics, as a result of the specific chemistry and cell design. 3PDF Image | Electron Transfer Kinetics in Redox Flow Batteries
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