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Energies 2021, 14, 5643 10 of 45 Year 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Electrolyte 3 M H2SO4 + 1 M V + varying concentrations of CuSO4 Electrodes Graphite felt—1.5 mm thickness Carbon paper with KOH activation of the fibers Graphite felt Electrospun carbon fibers Carbon felt—6 mm thickness Carbon nano-foam free standing sheets Composite material based on nickel manganite and carbon nanofibers Graphite felt treated at 500 ◦C for 8 h Not specified Bipolar Plates Graphite plate with serpentine flow-field Graphite plate with serpentine flow-field IrO -coated TiO x2 Not specified Low-carbon-content design based on the bridging effect of graphene Graphite plate with serpentine flow-field Graphite plate Graphie plate with serpentine flow-field Low-carbon-content with hybrid conductive materials of graphene, carbon fibers and graphite powders Membrane Nafion 212 Nafion 212 Nafion 117 Nafion 212 Nafion 212 Nafion 117 Fumasep F-930-RFD Nafion 211 Nafion 212 Area Results Ref. (cm2 ) 4.7 EE=80.1%@ [85] 300 mA·cm−2 EE = 82% @ 4 400 mA·cm−2 [86] 16 EE = 83% @ [87] 40 mA·cm−2 4 EE=80.1%@ [88] 200 mA·cm−2 40 EE = 83% @ [89] 140 mA·cm−2 EE = 80% @ 16 50 mA·cm−2 [90] EE = 80% @ 5 200 mA·cm−2 [91] EE=80.8%@ 4−2 [92] 40 EE = 81% @ [93] 140 mA·cm−2 All-Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (G1 RFB) All-vanadium RFB are one of the most technologically advanced redox flow systems, and there are already several commercial systems installed [81]. The largest one so far announced has a rated output of 200 MW and a capacity of 800 MWh and is located in Dalian, Liaoning Province, China [4]. The all-vanadium chemistry has one of the highest redox potentials (1.26 V) that can be fully used with low risk of starting the hydrogen evolution reaction and no permanent consequences if the species from the positive side cross over to the negative side, or vice versa. However, species crossover is still challenging since it induces self-discharge. V2+ reacts easily with oxygen, which discharges the negative tank of the battery, and V5+ precipitates at temperatures of ca. 40 ◦C [43,82,83]. This technology has already proven its effectiveness and the main research looks to optimize its performance and efficiency and achieve higher power outputs at lower prices. This objective has been mostly tackled by targeting the ohmic resistances, one of the biggest causes of power loss in VRFBs [84]. The electrodes and bipolar plates are the main subjects of research to reduce the overall resistance. Table 3 summarizes the changes that were made to key components in a VRFB and the main results reported from 2016 to 2021. Table 3. The most relevant VRFB components reported since 2016. 3 M H2SO4 1MV 3 M H2SO4 1.5 M V 3 M H2SO4 1MV 3 M H2SO4 1.5 M V 3 M H2SO4 1.7 M V 2 M H2SO4 1.6 M V 3MHSO 24 1.1 M V 3 M H2SO4 1.5 M V + + + + + + + + 600 mA·cmPDF Image | PNNL Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Stack
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