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Energies 2021, 14, 5643 21 of 45 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 48 Figure 6. Schematic diagram of a NA-RFB. Figure 6. Schematic diagram of a NA-RFB. One of the major limitations of NA-RFBs is the low solubility of the metal ligands The main difference between aqueous and NA-RFBs is in the electrolyte solvent and in organic electrolytes. Furthermore, the voltage losses due to ohmic effects are more supporting ions. In NA-RFBs, organic solvents, such as acetonitrile (ACN) [166,172–180], significant than in VRFBs because the conductivity of the non-aqueous organic solvent- propylene carbonate (PC) [173,177,181–183], and ethylene carbonate (EC) [181,182,184], based electrolyte is twice that of the aqueous acidic medium [167,170]. To overcome are used to dissolve metal–ligand complexes as reactive species. To improve conductivity, these limitations, all-organic redox flow batteries (A-ORFBs) have been proposed to bring an ionic liquid is added as a supporting electrolyte such as tetraethylammonium tetra- together the advantages of using a non-aqueous electrolyte and electroactive organic com- fluoroborate (TEABF4) due to its compatibility with organic solvents [83]. pounds [184]. This battery was composed of 2,2,6,6,-teramethyl-1-piperidinylxy (TEMPO) One of the major limitations of NA-RFBs is the low solubility of the metal ligands in and N-methylphthalimide dissolved in acetronitrile and supported by NaClO . Tests organic electrolytes. Furthermore, the voltage losses due to ohmic effects are more signif- performed indicate an equilibrium cell potential of 1.6 V, stability in charge–discharge icant than in VRFBs because the conductivity of the non-aqueous organic solvent-based cycles, and a coulombic efficiency of 90%, showing that all-organic RFBs show excellent electrolyte is twice that of the aqueous acidic medium [168,171]. To overcome these limi- potential for application in NA-RFBs [184]. tations, all-organic redox flow batteries (A-ORFBs) have been proposed to bring together Table 5 summarizes NA-RFBs developed over the last few years, i.e., from 2010 until the advantages of using a non-aqueous electrolyte and electroactive organic compounds mid-2021. [185]. This battery was composed of 2,2,6,6,-teramethyl-1-piperidinylxy (TEMPO) and N- methylphthalimide dissolved in acetronitrile and supported by NaClO4. Tests performed indicate an equilibrium cell potential of 1.6 V, stability in charge–discharge cycles, and a coulombic efficiency of 90%, showing that all-organic RFBs show excellent potential for application in NA-RFBs [185]. Table 5 summarizes NA-RFBs developed over the last few years, i.e., from 2010 until mid-2021. 4PDF Image | PNNL Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Stack
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