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Energies 2021, 14, 5643 32 of 45 These studies should be complemented with life cycle assessment studies on new batteries to ensure that environmentally friendly technologies are employed. According to the literature, to reach a wide market diffusion, the capital cost of RFBs should be less than USD$ 150 (kW h)−1 by 2023 [29]. For aqueous systems, Dmello et al. [280] suggest a cost target of USD$ 100 (kW h)−1. However, this cost was dependent on the active material cost, active material molar mass, specific resistance of the battery, and cell voltage. The value proposed was based on combining USD$ 2 kg−1 active material cost, 100 g mol−1 molar mass of active material, 0.5 Ω cm2 area specific resistance of the battery, and 0.79 V cell voltage. Regarding non-aqueous systems, the cost is not so dependent on the active material cost since the cost of solvents used may range from USD$ 2 to 20 kg−1, (e.g., nitriles, glymes, and carbonates, may go up to USD$ 20 kg−1) and fluorinated salts (e.g., tetrafluoroborates, hexafluorophosphates and bis(tri-fluoromethylsulfonyl)imides, USD$ 2 kg−1). Therefore, the most effective methodology to reduce the overall cost of NA-RFB is by increasing the cell voltage. Dmello et al. [280] proposed a cost target of USD$ 100 (kW h)−1 by combining 100 g mol−1 molar mass of active material with area specific resistance of the battery of 2.5 Ω cm2, a cell voltage of 3.0 V, a 0.2 salt ratio, and 3.3 mol kg−1 active molarity [280]. It will be necessary to establish the RFB parameters that are affected by degradation, such as corrosion, and their impact level on performance. It will be, likewise, important to define the state of health of a RFB system that, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, has not been studied in detail (nor is there yet a plan to do so). Another area that needs attention is the detection of failures, the characterization of such failures, their cause, and the damage level within the system. Nevertheless, it should be kept in mind that the variables to be measured and the instrumentation to be used should be balanced between the efficiency and costs involved. Another important tool is the automation that will have an extremely important role here since it will allow us to reduce costs and implement the detection mechanisms capitalizing RFB’s performance and making it safer and more reliable. The development of suitable mathematical models to simulate and rationalize the cell performance as well as the development of consistent multi- and unsymmetrical cycle performance at a large-scale pilot in modular stacks, i.e., up to grid-level, will also be of extreme importance. The use of computational tools and interdisciplinary knowledge created may be expressively improved to meet the criteria for commercialization and global applications. Understanding the fundamentals of such systems through modeling, design, synthesis, and wide-scale collaboration between research groups will allow us to address the energy storage needs of the future [48]. 5. Discussion Considering all the advances exposed and discussed above, it is undeniable that the battery storage technology plays a major role in achieving reliable and economic operation of smart electric grids with substantial amounts of renewable power. Soon, battery technologies will be an integrated alternative system economically attractive to integrate within the grid. RFB devices have the potential to assist in operating the future electricity grids reliably and to assist in economically integrating renewable energy sources, such as wind. VRFB are the closest to achieving this goal, for the great advantages that they show. Having the energy that can be stored and the power installed decoupled gives this technology flexibility in the way that it can be implemented. Moreover, their impressive stability enables energy storage for long durations of time without significant energy loss. These properties make VRFB one of the best candidates for a wide range of applications, from household energy storage to grid-level storage. Most of the studies found are focused on reducing the battery cost and improving their reliability and large-scale batteries are being integrated in the development of wind farms.PDF Image | PNNL Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Stack
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