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Energies 2021, 14, 5643 33 of 45 Besides battery technology development, it is necessary to approach analysis tools to assess the economic feasibility of integrating batteries in electric networks. Most of the economic tools for analysis do not include market changes, accuracy of wind/solar power forecast tools, or the possibility of using batteries for multiple applications. Moreover, a technical assessment would require the development of reliable battery models for power system studies to be carried out at different time scales (ranging from hours to months). In this context, new techniques need to be established to model large number of distributed small capacity batteries for power system studies such as stability, load flow, and power quality. Most of the efforts in the last ten years of research have been focused on understanding the technical requirements and challenges of different types of RFB. The inherent advan- tages and the interesting challenges of the different types of RFB have been discussed and approached. Most of the research developments reported throughout this manuscript showed and indicated that a safe, affordable, sustainable, and robust long-duration energy storage system based on VRFB is quite promising. Nevertheless, the development of more efficient future RFBs depends on developing specific molecular designs that can satisfy, at the same time, the primary techno-economic drivers of cost, durability, efficiency, and power density. It must also be kept in mind that the computational studies are an extreme and important tool that can be extended, allowing for the study of the tendency of specific and adverse electrolyte reactions before synthesis and testing in the RFB field [44]. All-vanadium RFB are by far one of the most promising energy storage technologies due to its decoupled power/capacity and it excels at stationary applications. However, one of its main drawbacks is the low energy and power density due to the stack weight and vanadium solubility. As an alternative, vanadium bromine (G2) and mixed-acid vanadium (G3) chemistries was proposed to increase the solubility threshold. This ultimately increases the energy density and temperature range of operation, resulting in the possibility of bromine and chlorine gas evolution. Other alternatives to avoid this drawback are the use of metal–air redox pairs, which contributes also to drastically reduce the weight of the device, or zinc–bromine chemistry, which relies on a higher standard potential of reaction. Unfortunately, the former shows several challenges to become commercially viable mainly due to electrocatalysts, and the phase change presented by the latter leads to dendrite formation, bromine evolution, and process control issues. To avoid the phase change due to electroplating, it is possible to use semi-solid redox pairs (i.e., slurry RFBs) but the increase in pressure drop and therefore energy losses from pump activity is still a shortcoming to be surpassed. Regarding the development of new electrolytes for RFBs, POMs have the advantage of exchanging several electrons in each reaction, depending on the POM used. However, most of the reported studies on RFBs are still at a very early stage and require further optimization until they become competitive compared to current technologies. Regarding NA-RFB, the main advantage is that they are not limited to the electrochemical window of water. However, most of the reported studies show low conductivities, stability, and high costs. 6. Conclusions The increasing demand for clean energy to meet climate targets will certainly force the adoption of cost-effective energy storage systems. RFBs have the potential to be an interesting solution for stationary applications that may be a complement to current lithium batteries. Despite the long lifetime and the notorious increase in the current density achieved over recent years, particularly for VRFBs, it is necessary to reduce its production cost. This will allow us to fulfill the market requirements and consolidate VRFBs as the large-scale, grid-connected energy storage device humanity needs. To do so, beyond screening for more cost-effective materials, another alternative is to develop strategies to achieve higher power densities and therefore decreasing the cost per kW. For instance, by optimizing the electrolyte flow, it is easy to reach a lower pressure drop andPDF Image | PNNL Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Stack
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