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Zero-dimensional models for flow rate optimisation have been recently considered [33]. For instance, an iterative model has been used to determine a variable flow factor as a function of SOC and coupled to pressure drop [34]. The model follows a quasi-plug flow reactor as a compromise with computational efficiency [32]. The concentration overpotential in a commercial vanadium RFB was later modelled using a zero- dimensional approach [35]. Since this type of model cannot consider the porous area of the electrode, a scaling factor was applied to the geometrical electrodes in order to produce practical results. Other RFBs models develop control algorithms, e.g., extended Kalman filter (EKF) for capacity monitoring [36], SOC estimation considering the capacity fading [37], and time flow control for charging using solar cells [38] or wind power [39]. Techno-economic feasibility models have been recently reviewed [40]; most of them centre on capital cost, stressing the significant role of vanadium reactants, and revealing wide variability in the assumed prices of membranes and ancillary equipment. Recently, two models for grid-level energy storage, one in Germany [41], and the other in the USA [42], concluded that RFB investment costs should be reduced by 20-30%, in order to remain competitive. Notably, a model for the implementation of large-area electrodes has estimated potential cost reductions of about 25% [43], while new models could establish up-to-date cost and financing targets by taking into account new electrolyte leasing schemes [6]. Regarding lobbying opportunities, a case study has pointed out the need for flexible tariffs in order to maximise storage value [44]. The environmental life cycle assessment of vanadium systems has been carried out [45], highlighting their improved recyclability compared to Li-ion batteries. 7PDF Image | Redox flow batteries for energy storage challenges
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