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monitoring cells after cross-mixing over many cycles. To address this, extended Kalman filters have been adopted [36,37]. Investigations continue regarding in situ current distribution and single pass SOC changes [84]. On a different matter, problems with the reproducibility of the composition and purity of vanadium electrolytes have been identified [85]. Indeed, best practice and standard procedures for the chemical analysis of vanadium electrolytes have not been agreed. Organic and other alternative chemistries Organic electroactive species dissolved in aqueous or non-aqueous media represent an attractive alternative to inorganic redox species. Organic molecules can be manipulated by introducing functional groups that can alter their solubility, redox potential [86], energy density [87], or choice of supporting electrolyte [88,89]. Recent review papers [10,90], have highlighted the challenges for developing organic redox flow batteries which include: appropriate materials, safety, low cost, high energy density, larger electrolyte volumes, symmetrical and unsymmetrical cyclability, development of mathematical models and the design of stacks with the appropriate electrochemical engineering. Typical electrolytes for organic RFB are non-aqueous and, more recently, eutectic electrolytes [91]. Most organic chemistries are still challenged by poor stability, hygroscopicity and difficult or expensive synthesis. Work has indeed focused on the stability of redox organics [92,93], including disproportionation systems [94,95], which are interesting for having the same initial composition in both half-cells. Ongoing research should be directed towards demonstrating the reliability of organic RFBs beyond the glovebox (low oxygen, dry atmosphere), at the laboratory pilot-scale. This will require the suitability of the components and materials employed in the flow system to be scrutinised, together with the need for ancillary dry or inert gas supplies, all of which 12PDF Image | Redox flow batteries for energy storage challenges
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